What happened in time and space that, out of the original burst of energy called the “Big Bang”, some 14 billion years ago, finally we humans, with all our exceptional talents, came to exist and live on this tiny planet where we now are – and to develop the mental capabilities we now have?

In the earlier energy cycle, solar energy and carbon-dioxide had been ubiquitous.But organic material, once harvested in the immediate surrounding, had to be found – requiring mobility.Mobility became necessary to find more or better food.Competition with other organisms on the prowl ensued.Sensors were required to guide motion and detect competitors.The signals from the sensors needed evaluation or “processing” to arrive at directed motion or behavior strategies.Nerves appeared in the course of evolution and nerve centers formed precursors of brains.

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Recent research indicates that the earliest organisms provided with nerves showed an accumulation of their nerves around their mouth, possibly guiding motion, but definitely controlling food intake.

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A variety of sensors evolved, preferably in the vicinity of the existing nerve concentration, leading to the appearance of a proto-brain and the “head” of early organisms – facilitating skillful food search and competition with other organisms.This evolution continued to let organisms prevail in territorial dominance, predatory behavior, and mating.

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Not only sensors, but also memory – an ever larger quantity of memory and complex memory access – became a competitive advantage for evolving organisms.This evolution was emulated in our time by the evolution of computers and global data systems (for example, the success of Google).

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2.The Fundamental Capabilities of the Mind:Emotions, Memory, Visualizations

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The appearance of the human mind can be seen as the most significant accomplishment of natural evolution on Earth – in its new dimensions of existence going beyond physical evolution. 

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Three very significant steps in evolution occurred sometime during the last few hundred million years in establishing the human mind:

-the appearance of emotions

-the capability for extensive and interconnected neural memory

-most importantly, the capability for “visualizations” of the mind leading to thought.

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These capabilities first occurred in a minor way in the brains of animals, then largely expanded and structurally differentiated in humans.These capabilities became the foundation of human evolution in the progress of civilization, in the formation of behavior including creativity, analytical and mathematical pursuit of the sciences, ethics, personality expression, and art, and in establishing directions in human life.These evolutionary steps led to consciousness, possibly free will, spirituality, and the evolution of religions.All are described in some detail below.

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These evolutionary steps became more significant than the physical evolution of humans and their physical capabilities.They opened new dimensions in existence.

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Computer hardware and design can be studied by a branch of physics.But is computer software a branch of physics?The new field of “computer sciences” covers the software area.Does the creation of computer music or art belong to the “computer sciences”?More to the point, is the study of the “mind” a part of neurophysiology or biochemistry – the study of emotions, thought, creativity, ethical values, personality, and the sensitivity for art? To some extent, the fields of psychology and, more specifically, “cognitive” psychology have assumed the position of sciences of the “mind”.But is psychology related to neural signaling in the brain?Is “cognitive” the right term to cover all of what constitutes the human “mind”?Maybe there is a need for a new branch of science to study the human mind and its unique dimensions, but based on what we increasingly know about the brain.

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Following are discussions of the specific dimensions of the human mind mentioned above:

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Emotions

The most primitive neural functions are reflexes that lead only from sensation to consequent muscle movement.Emotions evolved as neural functions that go beyond reflexes.In primitive organisms with small brains, the need to assess danger and to very quickly avoid risk – or the need to fight – may be counted as the most basic “emotions”.

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Equally basic, strongly developed or expressed, and genetically anchored were “emotions” that led to specific behavior that evolved into “ethical” behavior, as in the caring for offspring and, only among social animals, to reciprocity in assistance with chosen partners, or self-sacrifice for the good of the pack – or to pair bonding, in contrast to the equally genetically anchored territorial aversion against other individuals among non-social animals – and a mixture of both among humans, where “territories” can be of mental nature, as professional positions (also related to pecking-order conflicts) or religious denominations.Emotions led to the valuation of human life and behavior and to human ethical “values” (not to be confused with economic/commercial values).Our public debate and our concerns for society return again and again to the question of the proper ethical “values” for our culture. 

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As can easily be observed, fear or aggressiveness are not simply reflexive but can exist independent of muscle movement, as when the muscles or behavior are restrained.In that sense, emotions are the setting of general predispositions or moods leading to behavior patterns.As we know from ourselves, they may be felt as intensely as sensory perceptions.

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The significance of emotions has varied through evolution and includes:

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-The fast, summary assessment of situations at low neural “cost”

-The rise of a variety of differentiated emotions – emotions coming in many flavors – including love, joy, pride, sadness, despair, and many more

-The “ethical” emotions as foundation of ethical “values” and religious doctrine for individuals and society – in family life, business, politics, and more

-Emotions and values as controlling or guiding the functions or strategies of life – making life worth living or miserable, indicating what course to pursue or what to judge as acceptable or unacceptable

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Other important emotions include:

-Boredom

-Curiosity

-Art appreciation

These emotions had consequences for personal life and the evolution or spreading of civilizations.

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A curious human emotion is humor.

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Emotions – originally a simplified neural control mechanism – developed in humans to the new phenomena of love, joy, empathy, pride, happiness – constituting the greatest gifts in human existence -- or burdens, when implying sorrow, pain, fear, loneliness, despair, commiseration, sympathy with loved ones, hopelessness.All of these emotions constituted new dimensions in progressing evolution, but they are the ones that give direction and value to our lives – or are our burden. 

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Some psychologists and philosophers want all emotions to be reduced to only one basic emotion of feeling good or bad, happy or unhappy.This reduces all subsequent behavior to an effort to maximize personal benefit in feeling good, similar to “utility” in business theory.In this approach, emotions such as love, pride, compassion, and humor are all lumped into one – with, for example, hate, sadness, or boredom.Such compression of the consideration of emotions may be practical for some summary discussions, but it does not do justice to the diversity of existence, and it provides poor guidance in the multiplicity of situations in real life.It even becomes dangerous when confusing ethical behavior, altruism, and fairness with seeking of personal benefit.

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Emotions guide not only instant behavior, but also thought sequences – possibly leading to later consequences.This occurs through “value”-proportional formation of synaptic connections leading to preferential associative thought (see the essays on mental creativity on the websitewww.schwab-writings.com) as discussed later.

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Memory

Memory can exist without neural networks, as in cellular transformation (for example, a tan) or predisposition for certain external stimuli, either genetically given or acquired (imprinted).

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A very important step in evolution occurred with the storage of sensory perceptions in groups of neurons (through formation of “synaptic” nerve endings and couplings between nerves with varying permanence).This neural memory became very significant when embedded in neural control networks – namely, the brain.Therefore, neural memory must be seen as the first step in the evolution of the brain and the evolution of mental capabilities.

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The advantage of neural memory became apparent once the oxygen-energy cycle had occurred, organisms obtained mobility, had to search for food, and were led to intense competition.The recognition of prior sensory stimuli and their consequences allowed for the acquisition of experience and led to a higher success rate, whether in the search of suitable food or in conflict with other organisms.

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The comparison of new sensory perceptions with already existing memory required the matching of the defining elements of the new perceptions with the memorized perceptions and consequent neural activation when such matches were found.This was accomplished when new perceptions followed the same neural pathways that had established the prior memory.Coincidences led to recognition.Recognition could have occurred through simple increase in neural activity (firing rate) of the new or memorized perception – and coupling into emotions (and later developed valuations, as by the amygdala) and leading to consequent behavior – as in feeding, mating, fleeing, or fighting.

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Most sensory perceptions require a large number of neurons for identification and retention of essential perception elements (how many memory elements are needed for an animal to recognize a certain predator?).This led to an ever-increasing demand for memory in the brain.Obviously, though, this required selectivity in acquiring memory inputs.After all, we are surrounded by, and our sensors perceive, millions of impressions all the time, most of which we neglect or do not bring to awareness.The selectivity for memory input must be on the basis of significance of the perception, a form of valuation.One should expect that the coincidence of a perception with a strong positive or negative valuation led to memorizing.The mechanism could have been a signal increase (increased firing rate of the neurons carrying the perception) upon strong valuation – leading to memorization.In the human brain, valuation is contributed by the amygdala and some other brain nuclei.Memorization is guided by the hippocampus nucleus of the brain.

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This is an example of the co-activation of the analog-signaling capability of the brain (analog firing rate corresponding to valuation) with the discrete (digital) signaling in establishing synaptic formations (the individual memory pattern).

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Human memory evolved to include much more than only sensory perceptions.It allowed memory of emotions (as in valuation of perceptions), of mental “visualizations” (elements of own thought) as explained later, of verbal concepts (including the “inner voice” as explained later), of mathematical symbols, of space, and, quite mysteriously, of time or time increments.This let memory become the base for thought and consciousness, as explained later.

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Memory, at least that of higher animals and humans, is symbolic, categorical, and hierarchical as explained in the following paragraphs.

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As indicated, a fully detailed description of most perceptions would contain very large amounts of data.Memory is limited and, consequently, must be reduced to the memorization of the essential elements of perceptions.This leads to the amazing capability of “symbolic” memory, (consequently also to symbolic visualization and symbolic thought, as discussed later), a fundamental and most important break-through in evolution.Without this “data compression” capability, practical amounts of memory and thought could not have developed.For example, what is a lion, since all lions are different from each other in appearance and possibly also in sound and smell?Yet, they must be readily recognized by their prey – in differentiation from other not-dangerous animals.Symbolic presentation is somewhat related to the recognition of Aristotelian “ideals”.

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All words are symbolic presentations – also of emotions – thereby becoming important to individuals and cultures as expressions of their inner substance.Is all of mathematics a handling of symbolic concepts?

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All types of prey, predators, and potential mates had to be recognized from memory as such in a “categorical” manner, as individuals belonging to the same category – allowing the structuring, simplifying, and handling of memory and thought more efficiently.As a matter of fact, the tendency of all human thought (and, more importantly, judgment) to be categorical may be very efficient, but may also result in severe deficiencies in thought and judgment – as in prejudices against individuals.

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The “hierarchical” structure of memory is an amazing capability, resulting in corresponding substantial efficiencies and large steps in associative sequences for thought.For example, a family pet named “Spot” was, on different hierarchical levels, a Terrier, a dog, a mammal, an animal, a living being – yet, retained in memory only as “Spot”.What is in memory a family, a nation, or a “democracy”.What is a letter, an alphabet, a number, or an equation such as “e=mc²”?

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Visualizations

The most important step in the evolution of the mind – and consequent much later evolution of human civilization and culture – occurred when the brain became capable of the presentation of visualizations and their associative sequencing.

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The concept of “visualization” is used in this essay to describe the appearance in the mind of images, sounds, verbal or mathematical or other symbolic concepts, tastes, fragrances, or tactile sensations independent of sensory perception.In other words, the mind can present the images of objects or any of their characteristics – for example, we can visualize a flower or the face of another person – without that object being present.A writer can search for and have a verbal concept in his mind.A mathematician can handle complex equations of mathematical symbols in his mind.An advertising agent – or a preacher – can handle the symbolic significance of images or words.A musician can have in his mind a sound or harmony without any musical instrument actually being played – as every composer or musician knows.

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In a neurophysiologic sense, a visualization occurs when the group of neurons required for an element of memory is activated and remains active – even beyond the duration of such initial activation from outside.Such activation may occur not only through new perceptions but also through the synaptic linkage to neurons related to other memory elements or brain processes.Hunger can lead to the visualization of food, fear to the visualization of enemies, the mentioning of a town to the visualization of a person living there, et cetera.

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A very important next step in mental evolution occurred when sequencing of visualizations became possible by means of their synaptic coupling – possibly facilitated by shared visualization elements that provide for the coupling and sequential activation of groups of nerves constituting those visualizations.In other words, visualizations can be not only static, like a slide show; they also can be dynamic, like a video show in the mind, leading to “thought”.In the case of sequences of verbal concepts, this leads to the thought phenomenon of the “inner voice”, as if thoughts were expressed in the mind by the mind’s talking, see later discussion.Sequences of harmony-“visualizations” may result in the “visualization” of melodies.Individual visualizations within the sequence may last only for fractions of a second.

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2.The Basic Functions:Thought, Creativity, Ethics, Personality, Art

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Thought

The phenomenon of thought is discussed in detail in the two essays on “Mental Creativity” in the “Brain-Mind” section of the website www.schwab-writings.com.

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Thought is the appearance of sequences of virtual, perception-like effects in the mind, however independent of sensory input – here called “visualizations”.

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The appearance of a single visualization does not make for “thought”, but the pursuit of properly coupled visualization sequences does (associatively linked visualizations or those providing a meaningful sequence).The capability for thought became the most significant step in the evolution of practical progress, for the formation of human civilizations, and for an understanding of existence..

Some further observations regarding “thought”:

As discussed before, “visualization” and, consequently, thought is the consequence of the appearance of the capability for memory in primitive organisms.Equally important, evolution must have allowed for associative connectivity between memory elements in the brain.The perception of any memorized aspect of prey or predator (fragrance, visual detail, sound) would have led to the visualization of that prey or the feared predator.Based on this fact, the call-up of one memory element led to the subsequent activation of the next associatively linked memory element.Once this was given, associatively linked visualizations could sequentially follow each other.

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The activation of a visualization must be accomplished by initiating the firing of the neurons that make up that memory element, providing the same effect as an actual perception.If there are many memory elements, as in the human brain, any other memory element but the one addressed must be inhibited or kept from firing – for example, by neural cross-connections as also existing in the retina of the eye and among neurons in the skin to improve the perception of motion or differences (edges).

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It is typical for many neurons that they fire only for a limited period of time, as if tiring after that.As the firing of one memory elements fades within a fraction of a second, the suppression of others equally fades, and the next one, possibly the one with the strongest associative linkages to the previous one, begins firing, suppressing all others in its turn.This establishes a sequence along the line of the strongest association – resulting in an associative thought sequence.This selection of the strongest associative link in thought sequencing is somewhat similar to Darwinian selectivity in the progress of the fittest.The “speed” of thought is given by neural characteristics – and may vary.

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The strength of the associative link between memory elements – and, consequently, the direction of the thought sequence, is provided by several factors, principally by the emotional or biological (experienced poison, danger) value of the stored memory element (provided via the amygdala and other brain nuclei), by the habitual perception or usage of that link, and by the perceived value of the consequences of the train of visualizations.

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Any new perception with high signal strength (for example, the ringing of a telephone) – as determined by valuation – can interrupt the thought sequence through neural inhibition.

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All of the above results in the mysterious capability for “thought” – to move in a virtual world, to simulate, and to project alternative developments or new objects – or mathematical symbols with their implied meaning – or art.

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The combination of emotions and thought can be seen as the appearance of “mind” among advanced animals.

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Do animals think?Dogs can be observed dreaming – indicating visualization sequences – consequently indicating the capability for thought.Predators can develop hunting strategies – consequently they are capable of thought.

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The question arrives, why there is always only one foreground thought at a time even though there are two halves of the brain, with limited connection between them, allowing only for limited inhibition of memory activation sequences between the two halves.

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Thought in association with verbal concepts is very common among individuals dedicated to speech or writing and appears as the “inner voice”.It may actually be a secondary phenomenon, with verbal formulation following the preceding perceptual thought (see some cases of mental creativity, verbal aggression and defense in debate, or some newer experiments related to the subject of “free will”).The inner voice may actually be a nuisance at some time, whether as the “voice of the devil” or in not letting the mind rest.But the inner voice is the key capability of poets and writers.

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The great importance of speech for human mental evolution results from the fact that the evolution of speech recognition and formulation led to the evolution of more complex concepts and systems of thought.Especially we humans developed a wide hierarchy of words, much beyond the capabilities of animals, substantially contributing to cultural progress.Simple words are descriptive of single actions or objects (walk, sit, chair, or table).But more advanced words are summary designations of complex sequences or of groups of objects (for example, furniture, voting, inventing, molecules, Americans).The most advanced words comprise the visualization or communication of complex thought patterns or interpretations of existence (for example, politics, research, religion, relativity theory).The use of such word concepts allowed for the very much faster progression and communication of thought and a deeper understanding of existence.

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Given the importance of language for human thought and cultural evolution, it is interesting to note that word concepts, not having any intrinsic invariable substance, have no unique value, varying widely from language to language and in time.Words do not only vary in sounds between different languages, but also in the fine nuances or coverage area of meaning, leaving some words not-translatable or becoming very practical new words in other languages.Since different cultures are sometimes distinguished by a different spectrum of emotions, their language becomes a distinct expression of this emotionality and, consequently is appreciated and guarded.

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Mathematical thought, possibly not different from any other symbolic thought, became of high importance as modern science discovered that nature can be understood in mathematical terms, with mathematical expressions being independent of language or cultures – or residence on Earth – as a universal “language” to communicate universally valid thought.

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A specific aspect of thought is the fact that only certain connections of visualizations are acceptable, that there is some “recognition of “truth”, some following of logic.This gave rise to the mental occupation of “philosophy”.

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Equally important is the thought capability of differentiating between actual perceptions and (only) visualizations – between reality and dreams, between the actual surroundings and a TV-show – but being able to widely span space and time, far beyond our own existence.Pathological failure of these capabilities is readily recognized and dangerous.

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Emotions, memory, and visualization led to the evolution of the human mind in its capabilities for:

-Creativity, including mathematical creativity

-Ethical thought and judgment

-Personality formation or expression

-Appreciation of Art

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Modern science and technology offer vast new capabilities in memory and data processing – not to mention the advances in miniature machinery down to the molecular level in nano-technology.Will these new technological capabilities, as servants of the human mind, extend the mind’s capabilities?How could such an extension of the mind occur and what could it bring?Forecasts usually bring only more of the same.Evolution, however, in the “branching” progress discussed before, works differently.

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Creativity

Creativity evolved from pattern recognition or from the combinatorial linking of memory or thought elements to form new concepts – from fire making (possibly 1.5 million years ago) to tool usage, technical innovation, development of philosophical systems of thought – or the writing of this essay.

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There are various forms of creativity and different steps in the progression of creativity.Distinction shall be made between practical creativity leading to new objects or concepts and artistic creativity leading to new sensations or emotional responses.One can also distinguish various levels of creativity, from the smallest steps in detail to new holistic, large-step insights or improvements – giving rise to distinction in level of “intelligence”.

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Practical creativity can go through various steps: 

-Asking the right questions (the wording of the question often predetermines the final answer)

-Initiation of the right search or experiment

-Pattern recognition among multiple observations or results

-Finding or definingnew concepts or structures

-Buildinga new or expanded system of thought or perceptions

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Seagulls learn to break clam shells by lifting the clams to a certain altitude and dropping them on rocks.Apes learn to extract insects from hiding by means of small sticks and to use stones as breaking tools.The domination of fire may have been the most important step in early ingenuity and specifically human creativity [1].Thus, the recognition and remembering of successful experiences for later repetition, the building of experience, may have been the beginning of creativity.The recognition of opportunities as occurring in most lives from time to time, the mobilization of initiative for their proper utilization, and the pursuit of the next one is still a significant factor in human life’s success or progress.

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In arriving at new results or new concepts, the process of mental creativity is a “combinatorial” one combining existing memory elements or new perceptions (see the two essays on mental creativity on the website “ www.schwab-writings.com”).

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Consequently, a greater volume, variety, or addressability of available memory elements – the expansion of memory and also of the interconnectivity of memory elements – leads to a higher level of creativity.In teamwork, additional creativity is accomplished by the contribution of different educational background perceptions by the different team members.Equally, new entrants to an established field or the entry of an individual into a new field of enquiry can contribute to new creativity – by facilitating new associative connections and new systems of thought.Initial usage of vaguely defined objectives or words leads to more associations and, possibly, higher creativity.

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Human creativity was halting, at first, during human evolution.But creativity became increasingly appreciated, especially in the Western societies, and progressed more rapidly, especially in our time – leading to an overtaking or replacing of natural evolution, as in the genetic modification of plants and animals.

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Ethics

Basic ethical behavior – to be defined as behavior for the benefit of another individual, even at one’s own expense – is genetically established by nature for the benefit of prevailing in a harsh and competitive world of the individual or, more importantly, among social animals, for the benefit of prevailing by means of group cohesion and coordinated group action. 

Natural ethical behavior – genetically founded – can be observed in three ways:

-Caring for offspring and those close of kin, more intergenerationally forward directed and diminishing with genetic distance, leading to wonderful family coherence and, when largely extended, to social balance and support in society – but also to problems of “Cosa Nostra” duality of morality.

-Occurring among social animals:reciprocity (as in grooming, sharing of food, and assistance in fighting) – with the negative consequence in revenge for failed reciprocity or cheating – leading to high values in friendship, to networking in business, and, ideally, to Christian love (“agape”) for other human beings – but also to problems of personal and tribal revenge behavior.

-Also occurring among social animals:sacrificing own benefit and security for the benefit of the pack (as when the male animals fight predators to let the female animals with their young gain safety) – leading to taxation, military service, and public service engagement for the benefit of society – but also to nationalistic extremes with negative consequences.

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In sum, the origin, evolution, and function of societies and the accomplishments of civilizations or cultures are largely based on healthy and balanced ethical emotions and behavior among the members.

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These natural ethical emotions are the foundation for the judgment of morally “good” and “bad” and for the emotions of “pride” and “guilt”, or for “conscience”, the feeling of moral self-esteem and communal acceptance resulting from the memory of moral performance.

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There are individual variations (and variations with age) in emotional intensity.There are pathological imbalances and deviations in emotions and moral judgment.

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All “ethical” behavior is associated with some degree of learning – beginning with the recognition which in a crowd of youngsters is the own offspring, sibling, or parent – and decreases with genetic distance.Most learning results from selective observation (see, for example, great loves ending in divorce), with this fact presenting problems but also opportunities.

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The development of more differentiated emotions and thought led to the appearance of ethics beyond the genetically given, ultimately to the complex phenomena of cultural development in societies.This occurs through inclusion of an ever-wider range of individuals in the caring, reciprocity, and personal sacrifice sphere (including charitable aid to the most remote parts of the world).It also occurs in applying ethical behavior to more complex situations – ultimately leading to ethical values for family life, social coherence (civil rights), the conduct of business, politics, international relations, and more – even to the protection of wildlife and the environment.

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Moral laws, ultimately anchored in human needs but then historically anchored in religious teaching or clan culture, evolved through human history.The first written records of “moral” laws are from Urukagina, King of Lagash, in Mesopotamia, also called Uru’inimgina, approximately 2,380 bc, establishing laws against abuse of the poor by the once powerful priests and presenting himself as the protector of the weak, the widows, and orphans.not too much later, certain “moral” teachings appeared in Egypt.Then, a wave of religious an moral teachings went through mankind around 700 to 500 BC, with the appearance of Buddha, Lao-Tse, Confucius, and the composition of the Bible, including the emphasis on morals by Isaiah (about 750 – 700 BC).A new wave of moral teaching appeared with Jesus and some Greek philosophers (Aristotle and the Stoic philosophy). Should one add in later times St. Francis of Assisi, Gandhi, and others?

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In our time, moral laws are increasingly determined by public law based on the same general and natural human needs – for security, fairness, freedom, and opportunity – including the punishment of the violators, free-loaders, and cheaters – as an expression of natural revenge emotions, for the necessary deterrent effect, or to isolate the incurably dangerous ones.

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Modern public laws of behavior go far beyond the old religious moral laws – with differences in laws resulting from differences in emphasis between different cultures – as for security, protection of property, freedom, balancing of individual interests, protection against misleading behavior, restraint in reciprocal “vengeance”, judgment and treatment of criminals, fairness in offering opportunities, and assistance to the needy.

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The evolution of ethical values goes hand in hand with the evolution of modern societies – or the lack thereof.

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Still, there are two directions for moral laws – the satisfaction of emotional needs or utilitarian considerations, the usefulness, the rendering of benefit.Religious laws are somewhere in between, having originated from utility (the Ten C