Part I: The Progression of Creative Thought

1.1. The significance of creative thought

Mankind would never have risen above animal life without the improvement of tools, the invention of fire-making techniques, and many other innovations. Not biological evolution, but creative thought (and training) has facilitated mankind's spectacular progress from cave-dwelling times on. Modern life is not only based on technical innovation, but also on improved forms of organizational cooperation and government, some being related to ideological concepts and objectives (as freedom, justice, and social assistance).

The individual human being - if self-reliant, modern, with some means and leisure time - often finds fulfillment of life in the creative usage of his mental resources. A less affluent individual could use creative thought to arrive at more affluence.

Daily life, with its innumerable needs, options, predicaments, and decisions, is a challenge for everybody to use creative thought.

1.2. What is creative thought?

In its widest interpretation, "thought" can be defined as the nerval brain activities in the form of nerval signaling between sensory, biochemical, or physical inputs and action related nerval signal outputs (generation of speech included). Such nerval outputs may be direct and simple responses to sensory inputs (reflexes) or self-generated by internal brain processes. Delineation of the concept "thought" is not clear. Is brain activity during non-REM sleep also thought? Is memory fixation during sleep (short to medium to long-term) also thought? Is basic memory recall (as in counting) thought? Is a reflex thought? Are biological drives thought? But basic biological drives do initiate and influence thought.

"Creative thought" consists of brain processes or nerval signaling configurations that clearly are beyond a basic reflex or basic memory recall in consequence of a stimulating request. Creative thought results in self-generated (not merely “learned”) new or more complex associative nerval connections. For example,

Question: "What is the first number?"
Basic memory recall: "One"
After some thought: "Zero"
Comment: "This cannot be. Zero was invented only in the Middle Ages somewhere in India"
Comment: "Then, we do not know what the first number was. The first culture was Sumerian, and we do not know the names of their numbers."
Comment: "The first number was either "infinite" or "2". As long as there was only "1”, it was not a number but an indefinite article."

The term "creative thought" is used extensively in connection with progress in scientific research and industrial activities. This article refers only to such practical creativity. Creativity in the arts, specifically is not discussed in this article. Some creative thought, as in higher level mathematics and software generation, may include a gray-zone between practical creativity and aesthetics as reported by many mathematicians and programmers. And where should one find philosophical thought?

In research, creative thought is needed to define problems, devise experiments and the necessary equipment, arrive at conclusions from the experiments' results, and conceive new theories. In industry, creative thought shall bring new or better products, methods to finance, produce and market them, recognition of new markets, and ideas for proper organization of the industrial effort. There can be a dimension of new concepts (static) and one of new strategies (dynamic sequences).

Pattern recognition and proper timing are additional, important aspects of practical creative thought.

Creative thought is somewhat applicable to social situations of human interaction, whether in the organization of business or government, in education, or in the structuring of leisure and social activities. However, in those areas, non-practical thought (such as ideals, human values, and art) and emotions become important.

As a general statement, one can say: For the term creative to be specifically applicable, it is necessary and sufficient that the outcome of the thought process was not evident (for example, the next number after 2 is 3), that it was not known before (available in memory for recall by the individual doing the thinking), and is valid.

It is obvious that there are enormous differences in height of creativity between various creative ideas and innovations. However, it is very difficult to establish a qualitative scale and a limit below which new thought can no longer be called "creative". Most sentences spoken in this world are new and unique, yet, few are very "creative". On the other hand, even a simple sentence may be very creative for that speaker at that time. Many of the best innovations appear quite logical and obvious at a later time. In other words, the height of creativity is a relative parameter.

Therefore, one should reword the above sentence: For the term creative to be specifically applicable, it is necessary and sufficient that the outcome of the thought process not be evident to the person doing the thinking (even though, in hindsight, it may appear to be so), was not known before to the person doing the thinking, and is valid, at least within some limits or under some circumstances.

The physiology of thought does not allow for distinguishing creative practical thought from any other practical thought, such as memory look-up. The brain proceeds in the same way for either. At best, one could say that the formation of new associations (formation or activation of new synaptic connections or nerval signal patterns) in self-generated thought, not by learning, is indicative of creative thought.

There is a correlation between mammal evolution, the structure or quantitative development of certain parts of the brain, and the physiological location of certain brain processes. On a "lower" (and older) level, the spinal cord can execute reflexes but it cannot be seen as being involved in "creative thought". On a "higher" (and newer) level, the frontal and, most typically human, parts of the brain, while interconnected to most other parts of the brain and its nuclei, are essential for most (if not all) "practical creative thought" as discussed here [1]. The frontal lobes of the brain do not show any substructure or nuclei, comprising only a very large number of neurons in the gray cortex and interconnections in the white material. The functioning of the frontal lobes of the brain is, at this time, the least researched and understood area of brain physiology and cognitive psychology. Some progress has been made recently by means of PET-scanners, but mostly in regard to mapping. Work is being done at the Scripps Research Institute by Dr. Gerald Edelman and his team designed to understand the brain-signal configuration in a single visualization (perception or thought) and in thought connections.

Indications are that the frontal lobes of the brain are dedicated primarily to long-term memory combined with complex addressability, capability for sequencing, and access to short-term memory. This would allow for analytical thought, concept, and strategy development as well as for superior creative thought. With a linear increase in memory there is an exponential need for nerval connections for addressability for associations. This would explain the large size of the frontal part of the human brain. Is there a biological optimum for brain size, or was there one in the cave-dwelling past?

In investigating and describing thought, one must be aware of a semantic problem. The word thought can imply the totality of the thought process, actually including a large quantity of individual thoughts. The word thought can also be used to relate to an individual thought only, as in a single visualization, a momentary focus of awareness or, in a different meaning, a singular associative step in the connection of thought, as in an idea.

1.3. The process and progression of creative thought

The following model is presented for the description of the practical (not artistic) creative thought process:

Thought and Focus:

Given a certain point in time, the active brain may be focused on a specific thought, for example a task. The word focus shall indicate the thought with the latest or most significant short-term memory presence. (Example: A junior engineer working on the design team for a new vehicle has just received the task to place the spare tire. Question in focus: Where is the best location for the spare tire - on or in the vehicle?).

Most, if not all, focus-phases of practical thought are mental images of the same types as those received by sensory perceptions (visual images, sounds, smells, etc.). In other words, one can think in visual sequences, sound sequences, fragrance sequences, or tactile feeling sequences, or any combination of those. This phenomenon is correlated to the fact that most memory retentions are images of sensory perceptions (such as visual images, sounds, and smells, etc.), quite understandably so in evolutionary terms [2]. (As already indicated, artistic creative thoughts and emotions are not included in this discussion - for example, the poet searching for the right word, or the painter for the right color).

An important part of creative thought and memory retention is related to sequences in time (including motions). Memorization of associated image sequences can account for that. However, memorization of quantitative time differences (quantitative values of time intervals) is more difficult to understand or form a model for. (Example: "He came ten minutes late". "No, I remember that he came half an hour late". In both cases, one finds the same image sequence retention, but with two different time value associations).

Association:

Any given thought (image) usually is associated with a number of other elements or images in memory, addressable in one of the many ways the human memory can be addressed. In the above example, of the engineer searching for a place to mount the spare tire, thought associations can occur regarding other vehicles having spare tires or in visualizing his vehicle - all surfaces of the vehicle, all its cavities, the placement under the vehicle, and so on. Much simpler examples of multiple addressability are telephone numbers. They are associated with the respective party, with a geographic location, or with unique sequence of numbers that are number sequences and are addressable in memory by any one of those recollections. Some memory items can be addressed by color, material, location, owner, time of occurrence, fragrance, and many more addresses.

Upon focusing (priority in active memory) on a thought or image, the possible associations are triggered or activated in the brain. This can occur through an increase in the nerval activity level (firing rate) of synaptically interconnected or associatively memorized nerve connections, or via a common base in basic image elements (though the large quantity of frontal lobe cortex interconnections and the small quantity of connections emanating from neurons recognizing basic image element should let one expect the former mode of addressing, except in pattern recognition, where the latter may be the mode of association). [3]

What provides associative possibilities? Addressability in the memory of the brain requires prior associative usage of the connection. For example, a junior design engineer who always placed the spare tire in the middle of the trunk (as usual with old American cars) might design the next car again with the spare tire in the middle of the trunk, until the engineer has a family and children and tries to load the trunk to go on vacation, resulting in a negative "value" for this association.

Acceptance:

Only "useful" or valid associations or alternatives are accepted in thought (except in dreams or pathological sequences). In the above example, the engineer with family will not think of placing the tire in the center of the trunk any longer but will now search for some other association or "idea". Acceptance or rejection are commonly subconscious. Rejection may be related to negative secondary associations related to consequences (for instance, conditioned response in animal experiments). Acceptance may be related to positively perceived consequences.

Valuation:

Most images and associations in memory are associated with a positive or negative "value" of specific intensity. (Examples: Primitive animals recall aversion toward foods associated with poisoning at an earlier time. For scientists and engineers, simple solutions are associated with positive value and are called “elegant”). More important, the value of a specific memory item depends on the associative linkage. Fire in an automobile has a negative "value". Fire in winter in the fireplace has a positive "value". Consequently, it is the synaptic connection, not the individual memory “cell” that defines "value". In other words, associations are memorized with their respective, attributed "value”. "Value" is learned through actual, individually experienced consequences or through speculatively perceived consequences [4].

The "value" is an analog parameter and may be provided in the brain by the strength of synaptic connections or, more likely, by the nerval firing rate along the path of an associative, synaptic connection. This may be the firing rate of the nerves directly related to the subject association or associated nerves projecting from the Amygdala and other parts of the limbic system (which is so often related to valuating responses) [5]. The famous case of Phineas P. Gage may be seen as evidence for the importance of limbic connections to the forebrain for judgment of associative connections [6].

The recent publication by LeDoux fully confirms the existence of such connections from the Amygdala as postulated here [7].

Just as neural activity is activated through associative linkages, the amplitude of the resulting neural signal depends on the memorized "value" of such linkage (possibly through specific formation in synapses or in their vicinity in the cell). The consideration of this quantitative "value" parameter, while new, is essential for the understanding of the thought functions as described in this essay.

Sequencing of thought, path selection:

It is a unique aspect of thought that it is a dynamic phenomenon, endlessly proceeding (if it is not interrupted) in a sequence of similar steps, with only one thought achieving highest attention at any given time. How can one understand the sequencing process? Why does not thought diverge into myriad directions of a network of associatively interconnected memory items?

Usually it is one of the associations triggered by a certain phase in thought that is selected as the next step in the pursuit of the thought process. The new thought focus will, in turn, cause a new association to be called upon, and so on. In counting, there is only one association being called upon at any one time: the next higher number. In most practical thought, a number of different associations are available (as in selecting the place for the spare tire). It is suggested that the association with the highest "value" (or nerval signal; see above) is called on to serve as the next step in thought, while the other paths are lost in fading signal levels. The retina, with its horizontal and Amacrine cells, provides a mechanism with which to implement highlighting of the strongest signal in neural networks. A combination of activating and inhibiting synaptic connections between associatively connected cells can accomplish the same [8].

If the strongest primary association leads to negative value in subsequent associations, then several other association paths may be scanned quickly before settling on a new course of thought. (Above example: First thinking of external surfaces, then associating them with being exposed to thievery, with negative “value”, will lead to a new association path, one possibly beginning with the consideration of internal compartments [9]).

There is reason to believe that all practical thought (as discussed here) is little more than the interplay of an initial focus (or sensory stimulus), followed by associative memory sequences with acceptance and sequencing functions related to "value" attributes.

It has been observed that many thinkers first pursue the solutions to problems on the level of first principles, general rules, or basic concepts, before arriving at a detailed investigation or memory. This implies that these thinkers knew about such rules or principles and that these, like any other memory content, were available associations for them with higher "value," based on their experience with the consequences of this approach.

Thought sequences can be interrupted through such external influences as sensory inputs of sufficient amplitude or "value" in perceived consequences.

Timing:

The fact that there are thought sequences in time leads to the question of "speed" in thought progression. Basic neural pathways (stimulus to response) are in the region below a tenth of a second, with some in the millisecond range. Some thought sequences appear to be running much faster than others, especially under stress. Then, there are rests in thought (dozing), when processes appear to stand still. Some responses to sensory inputs follow a program fixed by nature. One would talk about reflexes in such cases, not covered by "creative thought" and not requiring a multitude of associative steps. There is no known research relating to timing of multi-step associative thought progressions under different conditions.

Focusing of thought through back-referencing:

In rambling thought, there is no thought reference in later association sequences to the original starting point. If there is no back-referencing to earlier thought, then creative solutions to problems are possible only between any two successive associations.

Focused thought occurs if the starting point of a thought sequence (or any point in between) implies an important task, problem, or question that has been memorized. This leads to memory priority (awareness or consciousness) for that important thought, task, or question, which thereby becomes a “focus.” In such a situation, all later associative thought steps are "valued" relative to their importance for that starting point when competing for the sequencing path and for memory access and awareness. Thereby, only focus-relevant thought sequences are pursued and brought to awareness.

Such focus fixation in memory and, later, back-referencing is essential for the possibility of "creative" solutions to appear at any later time, whether down the line in associative sequences or as sudden "ideas" much later. In those cases, even when a newer focus takes priority in awareness, there is still back-referencing of later thought to the old focus in a fading mode. [10]

In pathological cases or in older age, with the weakening of short-term memory, the reference to the original point of thought (or starting point of talk) diminishes because the original point is not retained in memory. More rambling thought and talk results, with little chance for creative solutions to appear or be recognized.

Consequently, one can say :

Thought is not localized. At best, some short-term, active memory is localized or specific segments of the related loops in the brain (the rhinal cortex underlying the Amygdala and hippocampus or, for habit development, the caudal portion of the caudate nucleus and putamen) [11].

Thought, if it is uninterrupted, is coherent. Any step in thought is caused by a related association and is followed by a related association. Interruptions occur through sensory input or other impact on the brain.

Creativity in thought is coherent. Any new idea or recognition is the result of the combination of prior memory items or associations (or new sensory input). Such combination can be unprecedented and unique. Thus, with ever new associations of possibly higher complexity being added, any number of structures become available in thought and can serve as the base for new combinations thereafter. A new combination itself can become a new memory item, if of sufficient "value". Additional memory items (associations) can be contributed through communication of such items from the memories of other people. Sensory input (observation) or other impact on the brain can also supply new memory items from the outside world.

A distinction must be made between passive and active memory. Memorized past events, images, or associations do not participate in the active thought process related to awareness or focused thought unless called on through association. Recent or new events, images, or associations can gain access to active memory and, thereby, participate in the thought process through their intrinsic "value" or occurring "value" upon association with the original focus through back-referencing and upon becoming "focus" for subsequent thought.

1.4. Conscious thought, sub-conscious thought, transitions

"Consciousness", "awareness", and "attention" are three interrelated terms. Their definition varies considerably from author to author and in time through history. Here, the following definitions are used:

• Attention: the momentary focusing of thought
• Awareness: the somewhat extended perception of a situation in reality or thought
• Consciousness: the awareness of oneself and one's own thoughts

In talking about "conscious thought", the common usage shall be followed, thereby implying that this is a thought within awareness or consciousness.

Conscious thought is related to memory. How could one be conscious of any thought that has disappeared totally within less than a tenth of a second without any trace?

The concept presented in this article postulates that nerval activity (sensory input or thought) above a certain intensity level (or associated with a certain significance or "value" level, as discussed above) is memorized (at least short-term) and thereby becomes accessible again at a later time. Nerval activities of low nerval intensity levels are not memorized. In competing situations (a thought against a new sensory input), the stronger signal prevails in access to short-term memory and, thereby, awareness.

"Consciousness," then, is nothing but the virtual phenomenon resulting from remembered and reaccessible prior thought or thought sequences [12]. Therefore, one can conclude that consciousness is as reliable or variable as thought, imagination, perceptions, sensory inputs, and memory.

If this is so, consciousness is not centralized or localized in the brain. At best one can state that short-term memory or parts of the loops related to it are localized (the rhinal cortex underlying the amygdala and hippocampus or, for habit development, the caudal portion of the caudate nucleus and putamen) [13].

Interestingly, "consciousness", seen as particularly characteristic of the human species and as having been of major importance in philosophy, generally is understood too much in anthropomorphic terms (as is the case with the concept of "God"). The concept was formed by what we experience and try to visualize in familiar terms, not by what it actually is in nature. The human self-reflective capability, often described together with consciousness as the essence of human thought, is only a consequence of the large human associative thought-sequencing capabilities in connection with certain substantial memory functions as described above. In humans, consciousness is the tip of the iceberg of the thought process in the brain, which, to a reduced extent, also exists on lower animal levels where memory size and duration and the number of associative links are much smaller [14]. Even among humans, consciousness can vary widely. When one is very tired or exhausted (or under the influence of alcohol or other drugs), one often has a lower-level consciousness than in moments of alertness. People living all their lives in mentally and emotionally deprived circumstances may have different levels of consciousness from emotionally balanced, well-established thinkers.

With the above model of consciousness in mind, it is quite clear that most thought occurs unconsciously or subconsciously. Only as an association step arrives at a certain related "value" intensity - for example, being quite agreeable or quite disagreeable - does memorizing begin and the thought becomes “conscious”. This explains the suddenness of ideas (for example, when a good solution is found by back-referencing) and the appearance of so-called intuition.

This concept is in line with the widely observed economy of all body functions in biological processes - here, in memory size requirements and usage. In addition, such limited short-term memory access through a significance-based priority system is necessary for orderly, focused thought sequences. If all the innumerable thought associations, many sequence-steps deep, were to appear simultaneously in memory, leading to back-referencing of any subsequent association, the selection of priorities, focus, and finding of results for a given initial problem would appear difficult. On the other hand, if evolution chooses to continue the enlargement of the human brain, larger complexity of thought, as by parallel processing in computers, could be a possibility.

1.5. Intuition, ideas and pattern recognition

The term "intuition" is commonly used to indicate the finding of a solution without conscious knowledge of associative steps leading to the solution and without proof of its validity. Many decisions in "practical" life are made "intuitively", also in scientific research. It should be noted that many intuitive solutions are wrong. Most intuitions are based on prior experience with what works under similar circumstances.

This is a form of associative creative thought. In reality, many associative connections in thought have only probabilistic validity.
The term "idea", while often used interchangeably with "intuition", is used in this article to designate the sudden appearance in mind of a valid solution with subsequent associative verification being available. Therefore, "ideas", as defined here, are the more interesting ones in creative thought.

There are two mechanisms for the appearance of ideas consistent with the concept of creative thought as presented here:

The appearance of ideas from subconscious thought:

The mechanism was explained in the previous chapter. When subconscious thought arrives at a significant association, with high "value" upon back-referencing to an earlier focus which is still in active memory, the resulting nerval signal level reaches a level that allows for access to memory and, consequently, to sudden awareness as a surprise "idea". The term "idea", or "intuition" (as opposed to "thought"), is applied more readily the further distant in time the appearance occurs from the establishment of the initial focus. Actually, any subconscious successful association more than one associative step away from focus can be called an “idea”

The term "idea" applies specifically when the original focus has already been superseded by a new focus. It is known that the human short-term memory can accommodate up to seven or ten items in subordinate focus.

The appearance of ideas from crossing associations:

Let us assume that a creative thought process starts with focus A and progresses through the three association phases, b, c, and d, before stopping without having found a "solution" to the problem raised by the focus A. Assume that, at a later time, another thought progression begins with the focus X. It could happen that the next association also leads to b, but the next thereafter to y. As b is initiated, an associative connection is now established between the original focus A and now also X and y. The latter, y, may result in a solution for A or an "idea", suddenly appearing in awareness.

This may very well have happened in the often recited example of Poincare's fortuitous idea about Fuchsian Functions, which he had been working on for some time. As Poincare stepped into a coach while traveling, he suddenly perceived of the "idea" that non-Euclidian geometry is represented by functions applicable to the Fuchsian Functions. It could well be that he looked at the step of the coach or any other curved surface on it and associated that curved surface with non-Euclidian geometry. This image associated with the image of what he had been working on before. Thus, the crossing point was established.

Darwin and Wallace both struggled with the question why diversification of species occurred. Neither could find the answer until, independent of each other, they happened to read Malthus' Principles of Population. Then both, at different times, had the ideas leading to evolution through selection of the fittest. It must have occurred to them in reading Malthus that overpopulation (focus X, see above) leads to war, disease, famine (association b) to the association of the survivors as usually the stronger, healthier, more skillful ones (association y). The commonality with their research on animal species (focus A) was accomplished through association b which carried them to the same conclusion regarding evolution.

As described, associative cross-over requires the leaving of the original focus and the beginning of new associative chains from different foci, with the chance possibility, at some later time, that a crossing point occurs. This may be the explanation for the "incubation period" or the need to get off an old track as observed in the thought processes of creative thinkers.

Idea appearance through associative cross-over can be considered a form of network thinking, as has been discussed recently.

Associative cross-over can function only if identical images are stored in identical places (or identical synaptic connections) in memory and similar images in narrowly coherent regions. The fact that identical images are recognized as having been perceived already when they reoccur indicates that such is the case. In other words, recognition and associative cross-over are physiologically related phenomena and are in line with the economy of biological functions.

Pattern recognition is a more complex form of recognition, where a number of elements or locations are associatively connected. At the root is the physiological phenomenon of biological economy and specialization. Identical images are referred to identical locations in the brain's memory. Alternatively, as indicated above, identical images, consisting of identical image elements, are recognized by the same image element specific nerve regions in the visual cortex or in the auditory region. This should lead to congruence of memory for identical images.

Pattern recognition may be based primarily on such commonality of image element recognizing cells. Pattern recognition is often equated or related to idea occurrence as in discovering similarities of structures. Kekule's idea for the benzene structure could be interpreted this way. Puzzles and many technical design tasks require pattern recognition for solutions and good solutions are seen as good "ideas". Pattern recognition is a large part of creative thinking.

Footnotes:

[1] Artistic creativity most likely involves other than the frontal lobes of the brain, being related to aesthetics and emotional significance. In those other parts of the brain, chemistry and hormones play some role, not only synaptic connections.

[2] Philosophical thought is more word-concept related. However, words are images, too, being either sound images or visual images. And how do deaf people, communicating in sign language, think or, as Helen Keller, a deaf and blind person? Not only philosophers, but all those involved in the struggle of verbal formulations, as when writing papers, have the verbal expression in thought awareness. However it is not certain whether the verbal thought awareness is the original thought or the verbalization of an underlying non-verbal thought, see Einstein's letter to Hadamard.

[3] It is interesting to note that most thought associations function bi-directionally, even though nerval signaling along axons and in synaptic connections is uni-directional. Since nerves do not appear in pairs with opposite direction, one must conclude the existence of a yet un-understood complexity of cross-connections.

[4] Memorizing of "value" provides some economy to the brain in time and energy by not having to repeat the full thought process to arrive at the possible consequences of an association.

[5] The small size of the limbic nuclei relative to the large frontal lobes indicates that bus connections are used for such signaling. This would have to be verified.

[6] In 1848, Phineas Gage shot a steel rod from below his left eye through the center area of his forebrain. While retaining his "intelligence", he lost moral judgment, truthfulness, and personal dependability.

[7] Joseph E. LeDoux: "Emotion, Memory and the Brain", Scientific American June 1994

[8] An alternative theory could assume that the "strongest" synaptic connection is being pursued with strength being derived from frequent usage. It is easy to prove that in most cases of practical creative thought the associations with the highest positive or negative "value" come up first. The pursuit of commonly used connections is rather an example of lacking creativity or mental freedom.

[9] In other words, if sequencing follows highest value of called upon associations in several subsequent steps, a sequence with low initial step value will not be pursued even though a later step from this sequence may have led to maximum value. This appears to be confirmed by experience. If somebody later discovers this better solution, one may observe "why did I not think of that", indicating that it could have been a potential associative thought sequence.

[10] One should investigate whether there are cells in the areas related to active, short-term memory as the horizontal and Amacrine cells in the retina.

[11] See Petri and Mishkin's work regarding the neuropsychology of memory, e.g. American Scientist Jan.-Febr. 1994.

[12] This is a statement with important psychological and philosophical conclusions.

[13] See Petri & Mishkin: "Behaviorism, Cognitivism and the Neuropsychology of Memory", American Scientist, Jan.-Feb. 1994.

[14] It is amusing to speculate at what level in biological evolution awareness or consciousness appeared. The antics of an agitated octopus in an aquarium indicate sequences of nerval activity (thought?) related to learned experiences (memory of thought).