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Part 3: The Human Mind and Beyond, Societies, Extraterrestrial Life, the Future
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3.1. The Origin, Evolution, and Function of the Human Mind
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Emotions, Memory, Visualizations
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Thought, Intelligence, Creativity, Ethics, Personality, Art
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Consciousness, Free Will, “Soul”, Spirituality, Religion
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considering the Brain’s Neurophysiology, Biochemistry, and Cognitive Psychology
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Content of this essay: “The Evolution and Function of the Human Mind”:
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Introduction and Etymology of Concepts
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1. A New Energy Cycle leads to Mobility, Sensors, and Signal Processing for Strategy 2
2. Fundamental Capabilities Leading to the Human “Mind”: Emotions, Memory, Visualizations 4
3. The Basic Functions: Thought, Creativity, Ethics, Personality, Art 8
4. The Abstract or “virtual” Functions: Consciousness, Free Will, “Soul”, Spirituality, Religion 16
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Introduction and Ethymology of Concepts
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Introduction:
What happened in time and space that, out of the original burst of energy called the “Big Bang”, some 14 billion years ago, finally we humans, with all our exceptional talents, came to exist and live on this tiny planet where we now are – and to develop the mental capabilities we now have?
A few key aspects of the world we live in and its evolution appear to be fundamental to the understanding of what occurred and who we are. They are especially surprising and impressive. A series of essays describes these most important aspects and phases of this evolution. These individual essays can be addressed individually and are also combined in the larger essay on the author’s website www.schwab-writings.com, in the section on “Science and Evolution”.
Within the evolution of the universe, one can say, the appearance and evolution of life represents a dimension of existence different from cosmic, or astrophysical, evolution.
The appearance of the human mind can be seen as the most significant accomplishment of the natural evolution of life on Earth. In its new dimensions of existence, it is extending beyond physical or natural evolution.
How did this evolution occur and what did it accomplish? The natural evolution of the human mind and the mind’s principal functions are described in this essay.
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Etymology of Concepts:
Human mental capabilities or functions are understood and described by a variety of linguistic concepts. These concepts are the result of the human effort to arrive at an understanding of the esoteric nature of human mental existence. The great thinkers of ancient Greece and Rome distinguished three aspects of human existence – soul (psyche = breath, principle of life, anima), mind (noos or logos), and body. The early Christian era emphasized the key concept of soul as the essence of human “transcendental” existence (beyond the physical one). With the Renaissance and, more so, with the Enlightenment, the concepts of reason and emotions moved to the foreground. In modern times, psychology and neurophysiology (combined with cognitive psychology) arrived at new understandings of human mental characteristics. In our time, the concepts of “human spirit” or “human mind” are most commonly used and, decreasingly, still the concept of “soul”. When going into further detail, there are several more concepts describing the specific functions of the human spirit or mind, namely reason, emotions, morals or ethics, personality, character, values, and more.
The two concepts of “human spirit” and “human mind” are similar in meaning but not fully identical. In the French language, only the concept of “ésprit humain” is commonly used and in German only “der menschliche Geist”. But the Italian and Spanish languages both permit the usage of “spirito/espiritu” or “mente”.
In the English/American usage, the concept of “spirit” is commonly used to represent the totality of an individual’s thought, character, and behavior, almost like a homunculus within the brain, very close to the traditional concept of the “soul” (a concept still very much in use among religious and spiritualistic groups, where it is often seen as the center of human sensation, cognition, and personality). The concept of “mind” is commonly used to denote the mental consequences of the functioning of the brain – but more so the thought processes rather than the emotional aspects of mental existence.
In a contemporary scientific perspective, emphasis is placed on the close connection between the structure and functioning of the brain, some biochemistry of the body (hormones or neurotransmitters) and that of human mental existence. Therefore, and for reasons of simplicity, the following essay will use only the concept of “mind” to denote the full spectrum of human mental capabilities or brain functions – emotions, thought, mental creativity, ethical thought or judgment, personality, artistic or aesthetic sensitivity, religious sensations or visions, and more.
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1. A New Energy Cycle leads to Mobility, Sensors, and Signal Processing for Strategy
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One of the above-indicated detailed essays on evolution, namely “Origin of Life, Molecular Biology, Natural Evolution, Humans”, describes the present understanding of the molecular beginning of life more than 3 billion years ago. The essay also describes the evolution of the atmospheric and biological conditions on Earth leading, approximately 550 million years ago, to a new energy cycle for organisms – the oxidation (digestion) of organic material. Oxygen was absorbed from dissolved oxygen in water or through breathing from air. Organic material needed for energy production from oxidation had to be acquired through feeding.
In the earlier energy cycle, solar energy and carbon-dioxide had been ubiquitous. But organic material, once it was harvested in the immediate surroundings of an organism, had to be found – requiring mobility. Mobility became necessary to find more or better food. Competition with other organisms on the prowl ensued. Sensors were required to guide motion and detect competitors. The signals from the sensors needed evaluation or “processing” to arrive at directed motion or behavior strategies. Nerves appeared in the course of the evolution of life – and nerve centers formed as precursors of brains (see the essay in this series in the Section “Science and Evolution” on the “Origin of Life”, chapter 3.2 and following).
It is a mystery of nature how nerves were originally developed. Why, and how, would a very long cell have developed in early organisms for the purpose of signaling between two points or between groups of dedicated cells within the organism (as for contraction after some input signal)? Most likely, this has occurred along some tissue folds or tissue borders. [1] It is a mystery, too, that basically only one type of nerve (with minor variations) was ever developed and can be found on all branches of the tree of life. The nerve is rather complex and slow, using a fairly complex system of neurotransmitters for signaling. Why was no other type of nerve ever developed by nature (for example, with metallic conductivity)? [2]
Linear nerves permit reflexive behavior (if you burn one of your fingers, one of your arms twitches and retracts the hand with that finger). A significant step in evolution occurred when a nerve began to act on another nerve. Two nerves with feedback to each other allow the formation of a “flip-flop” for “on-off” behavior with memory. More complex interconnections allow for complex biochemical memory and for complex responses, leading to networks of nerves.
Nerves did develop a variety of neurotransmitters for the biochemical coupling of nerves. This variety of “neurotransmitters”, some of them specialized for different functions in the body and brain, allowed for differentiated influences on body and brain functions – as by biochemical substances in connection with emotions (for example, the formation and effect of adrenalin or dopamine).
The formation of ever more complex networks of nerves led to the appearance of large accumulations of interconnected nerves close to the output of the most important sensors – for fast and appropriated response based on memory. This, in turn, led to the formation of the complex brain of mammals in their heads. The expansion of the cortex, mainly in the frontal regions, led not only to greater memory. Of equal or even greater importance was the increase in interconnectivity and greater addressability of memory elements. Thereby, language skills appeared, but also higher intellectual capabilities for mental creativity and strategy formulation – including a higher degree of consciousness.
Certain midbrain functions, emotions, must have developed very early in the evolution of animals, thus allowing for the fast and economic summary assessment of situations for basic reactions as “fight or flight”. Special nuclei developed in the early brains for these evaluations. Later developments led to the appearance of ever more refined “emotions” – and, ultimately, to ethics and our human system of values that give structure, direction, and meaning to our lives.
The cerebellum, almost a second brain, was developed to assume routine motor coordination and controls – including those of skillful athletes and musicians – thereby freeing the main brain for the control of other activities or thought. It is quite a mystery how this second brain could have been developed and function so efficiently parallel to the main brain.
Recent research indicates that the earliest organisms provided with nerves showed an accumulation of their nerves around their mouth, possibly guiding motion toward food, but definitely controlling food intake.
A variety of sensors evolved, preferably in the vicinity of the existing nerve concentration, leading to the appearance of a proto-brain and the “head” of early organisms – facilitating not only skillful food search, but also mate searching and competition with other organisms. This evolution continued to let some organisms prevail in territorial dominance, predatory behavior, and mating, thereby selectively leading to further evolution.
Not only sensors, but also memory – an ever larger quantity of memory and also complex memory access – became a competitive advantage for evolving organisms. This evolution was emulated in our time by the evolution of computers and global data systems (for example, the success of Google [3]).
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2. The Fundamental Capabilities of the Mind: Emotions, Memory, Visualizations
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Three very significant steps in natural evolution occurred sometime during the last few hundred million years in establishing the human mind:
- the appearance of emotions
- the capability for extensive and interconnected neural memory
- most importantly, the capability for “visualizations” of the mind, leading to thought.
These capabilities first occurred in a minor way in the brains of animals, then largely expanded and structurally differentiated in humans. These capabilities became the foundation of human evolution in the progress of civilization, in the formation of behavior including creativity, analytical and mathematical pursuit of the sciences, ethics, personality expression, and art, thereby also establishing directions in human life. These evolutionary steps led to consciousness, possibly free will, spirituality, and the evolution of religions. All are described in some detail below.
These evolutionary steps became more significant than the physical evolution of humans and their physical capabilities. They opened new dimensions in existence.
Computer hardware and design can be studied by a branch of physics. But is computer software a branch of physics? The new field of “computer sciences” covers the software area. Does the creation of computer music or art belong to the “computer sciences”? More to the point, is the study of the “mind” a part of neurophysiology or biochemistry – the study of emotions, thought, creativity, ethical values, personality, and the sensitivity for art? To some extent, the fields of psychology and, more specifically, “cognitive” psychology have assumed the position of sciences of the “mind”. But is psychology related to neural signaling in the brain? Is “cognitive” the right term to cover all of what constitutes the human “mind”? Maybe there is a need for a new branch of science to study the human mind and its unique dimensions, but based on what we increasingly know in the sciences about the brain.
Following are discussions of the specific dimensions of the human mind mentioned above:
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Emotions
The most primitive neural functions are reflexes that lead from sensation directly to consequent muscle movement.
Emotions, however, evolved as neural functions that go beyond reflexes. In primitive organisms with small brains, the need to assess danger and to very quickly avoid risk – or the need to fight – may be counted as the most basic “emotions”.
As can easily be observed, fear or aggressiveness are not simply reflexive but can exist independent of muscle movement, as when the muscles or behavior are restrained. In that sense, emotions are the setting of general predispositions or moods leading to corresponding behavior patterns. As we know from ourselves, emotions may be felt as intensely as sensory perceptions.
Emotions led to the valuation of human life and behavior and to human ethical “values” (not to be confused with economic/commercial/monetary values). Our public debate and our concerns for society return again and again to the question of the proper ethical “values” for our culture.
Early in evolution, basic, strongly developed or expressed and genetically anchored “emotions” appeared that led to these so-called “ethical values and behavior”, in the course of time differentiated into three different categories:
ü The caring for offspring (and related individuals, decreasingly with genetic distance)
ü The reciprocity in assistance with chosen partners (friends), but only among social animals – as in preference for congregation, grooming, food sharing, and assistance in fight – with the possible reversal in retribution, retaliation, or revenge. Such pair bonding is in contrast to the equally genetically anchored territorial aversion against other individuals among non-social animals – and a mixture of both among humans, where “territories” can be of mental nature, as professional positions (also related to pecking-order conflicts).
ü The readiness for self-sacrifice for the good of the pack or social group.
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In sum, the significance of emotions has varied through evolution and includes:
- The fast, summary assessment of situations at low neural “cost”
- The rise of a variety of differentiated emotions – emotions coming in many flavors – including love, joy, pride, sadness, despair, and many more
- The “ethical” emotions as foundation of ethical “values” and religious doctrine for individuals and society – in family life, business, politics, and more
- Emotions and values as controlling or guiding the functions or strategies of life – making life worth living or miserable, indicating what course to pursue or what to judge as acceptable or unacceptable
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Other important emotions include:
- Boredom
- Curiosity
- Art appreciation
These emotions had consequences for personal life and the evolution or spreading of civilizations.
A curious human emotion is humor.
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Emotions – originally a simplified neural control mechanism – developed in humans to the new phenomena of love, joy, empathy, pride, happiness – constituting the greatest gifts in human existence – or burdens, when implying sorrow, pain, fear, loneliness, despair, commiseration, sympathy with loved ones, hopelessness. All of these emotions constituted new dimensions in progressing evolution, but they are the ones that give direction and, mainly, value to our lives – or are our burden.
Some psychologists and philosophers want all emotions to be reduced to only one basic emotion of feeling good or bad, happy or unhappy. This reduces all subsequent behavior to an effort to maximize personal benefit in feeling good, similar to “utility” in business theory. In this approach, emotions such as love, pride, compassion, and humor are all lumped into one – with, for example, hate, sadness, or boredom. Such compression of the consideration of emotions may be practical for some summary discussions, but it does not do justice to the diversity of existence, and it provides poor guidance in the multiplicity of situations in real life. It even becomes dangerous when confusing ethical behavior, altruism, and fairness with seeking of personal benefit.
Emotions guide not only instant behavior, but also thought sequences – possibly leading to later consequences. This occurs through “value”-proportional formation of synaptic connections leading to preferential associative thought (see the essays on mental creativity on the website www.schwab-writings.com) as discussed later.
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Memory
Memory can exist without neural networks, as in cellular transformation (for example, a tan) or predisposition for certain external stimuli, either genetically given or acquired (imprinted).
A very important step in evolution occurred with the storage of sensory perceptions in groups of neurons (through formation of “synaptic” nerve endings or couplings between nerves with varying permanence). This neural memory became very significant when embedded in neural control networks – namely, the brain. Therefore, neural memory must be seen as the first step in the evolution of the brain and the evolution of mental capabilities.
The advantage of neural memory became apparent once the oxygen-energy cycle had occurred, organisms obtained mobility, had to search for food, and were led to intense competition. The recognition of prior sensory stimuli and their consequences allowed for the acquisition of experience and led to a higher success rate, whether in the search of suitable food or in conflict with competing organisms.
The comparison of new sensory perceptions with already existing memory required the matching of the defining memory elements of the new perceptions with the memorized perceptions and consequent neural activation when such matches were found. This was accomplished when new perceptions followed the same neural pathways that had established the prior memory. Coincidences led to recognition. Recognition could have occurred through simple increase in neural activity (firing rate) of the new or memorized perception – and coupling into emotions (and later developed valuations, as by the amygdala) and leading to consequent behavior – as in feeding, mating, fleeing, or fighting.
Most sensory perceptions require a large number of neurons for identification and retention of essential perception elements (how many memory elements are needed for an animal to recognize a certain predator?). This led to an ever-increasing demand for memory in the brain. Obviously, though, this required selectivity in acquiring memory inputs. After all, we are surrounded by, and our sensors perceive, millions of impressions all the time, most of which we neglect or do not bring to awareness. Just stop on a walk and look at the many impressions you could possibly perceive.
The selectivity for memory input must be on the basis of significance of the perception, a form of valuation. One should expect that the coincidence of a perception with a strong positive or negative valuation (or important question) led to memorizing. The mechanism could have been a signal increase (increased firing rate of the neurons carrying the perception) upon strong valuation – leading to memorization. In the human brain, valuation is contributed by the amygdala and some other brain nuclei. Memorization is guided by the hippocampus nucleus of the brain.
This is an example of the co-activation of the analog-signaling capability of the brain (analog firing rate corresponding to valuation) with the discrete (digital) signaling in establishing synaptic formations (the individual memory pattern).
Human memory evolved to include much more than only sensory perceptions. It allowed memory of emotions (as in valuation of perceptions), of mental “visualizations” (elements of own thought) as explained later, of verbal concepts (including the “inner voice” as explained later), of mathematical symbols, of space, and, quite mysteriously, of time or time increments. This let memory become the base for thought and consciousness, as explained later.
Memory, at least that of higher animals and humans, is symbolic, categorical, and hierarchical as explained in the following paragraphs.
As indicated, a fully detailed description of most perceptions would contain very large amounts of data. Memory is limited and, consequently, must be reduced to the memorization of only the essential elements of perceptions. This leads to the amazing capability of “symbolic” memory, (consequently also to symbolic visualization and symbolic thought, as discussed later), a fundamental and most important break-through in evolution. Without such “data compression” capability, practical amounts of memory and thought could not have developed. For example, what is a lion, since all lions are different from each other in appearance and possibly also in sound and smell? Yet, they must be readily recognized by their prey – in differentiation from other not-dangerous animals possibly of similar color. Symbolic presentation is somewhat related to the recognition of Aristotelian “ideals”.
All words are symbolic presentations – also of emotions – thereby becoming important to individuals and cultures as expressions of their inner substance. Is all of mathematics a handling of symbolic concepts?
All types of prey, predators, and potential mates had to be recognized from memory as such in a “categorical” manner, as certain individuals belonging to certain categories – allowing the structuring, simplifying, and handling of memory and thought more efficiently. As a matter of fact, the tendency of all human thought (and, more importantly, judgment) to be categorical may be very efficient, but may also result in severe deficiencies in thought and judgment – as in prejudices against groups of individuals (but selective targeting by the police or inspections is practical).
The “hierarchical” structure of memory is an amazing capability, resulting in corresponding substantial efficiencies and large steps in associative sequences for thought. For example, a family pet named “Spot” was, on different hierarchical levels, a Terrier, a dog, a mammal, an animal, a living being – yet, retained in memory only as “Spot”. What is in memory a family, a nation, or a “democracy”. What is a letter, an alphabet, a number, or an equation such as “e=mc2”?
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Visualizations
The most important step in the evolution of the mind – and consequent much later evolution of human civilization and culture – occurred when the brain became capable of the presentation of visualizations – and their associative sequencing.
The concept of “visualization” is used in this essay to describe the appearance in the mind of images, sounds, verbal or mathematical or other symbolic concepts, tastes, fragrances, or tactile sensations independent of sensory perception. In other words, the mind can present the images of objects or any of their characteristics – for example, we can visualize a flower or the face of another person – without that object being present. A writer can search for and have a verbal concept in his mind. A mathematician can handle complex equations of mathematical symbols in his mind. An advertising agent – or a preacher – can handle the symbolic significance of images or words. A musician can have in his mind a sound or harmony without any musical instrument actually being played – as every composer or musician knows.
In a neurophysiologic sense, a visualization occurs when the group of neurons required for an element of memory is activated and remains active – even beyond the duration of such initial activation from outside. Such activation may occur not only through new perceptions but also through thought or the synaptic linkage to neurons related to other memory elements or brain processes. A technical task may lead to the finding of a solution. Hunger can lead to the visualization of food, fear to the visualization of enemies, the mentioning of a town to the visualization of a person living there, et cetera.
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A very important next step in mental evolution occurred when sequencing of visualizations became possible by means of their synaptic coupling – possibly facilitated by shared visualization elements that provide for the coupling and sequential activation of groups of nerves constituting those next visualizations. In other words, visualizations can be not only static, like a slide show; they also can be dynamic, like a video show in the mind, leading to “thought”. In the case of sequences of verbal concepts, this leads to the thought phenomenon of the “inner voice”, as if thoughts were expressed in the mind by the mind’s talking, see later discussion. Sequences of harmony-“visualizations” may result in the composer’s “visualization” of melodies.
Individual visualizations within the sequence may last only for fractions of a second.
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3. The Basic Functions: Thought, Creativity, Ethics, Personality, Art
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Thought
The phenomenon of thought is discussed in detail in the two essays on “Mental Creativity” in the “Brain-Mind” section of the website www.schwab-writings.com.
Thought is the appearance of sequences of virtual, perception-like effects in the mind, however independent of sensory input – here called “visualizations”.
The appearance of a single visualization does not make for “thought”, but the pursuit of properly coupled visualization sequences does (associatively linked visualizations or those providing a meaningful sequence). The capability for thought became the most significant step in the evolution of practical progress, for the formation of human civilizations, and for an understanding of existence..
Some further observations regarding “thought”:
As discussed before, “visualization” and, consequently, thought is the consequence of the appearance of the capability for memory in primitive organisms. Equally important, evolution must have allowed for associative connectivity between memory elements in the brain. The perception of any memorized aspect of prey or predator (fragrance, visual detail, sound) would have led to the full visualization of that prey or the feared predator. Based on this fact, the call-up of one memory element led to the subsequent activation of the next associatively linked memory element. Once this was given, associatively linked visualizations could sequentially follow each other.
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The activation of a visualization must be accomplished by initiating the firing of the neurons that make up that memory element, providing the same effect as an actual perception. If there are many memory elements, as in the human brain, any other memory element but the one addressed must be inhibited or kept from firing – for example, by neural cross-connections as also existing in the retina of the eye and among neurons in the skin to improve the perception of motion or differences (edges).
It is typical for many neurons that they fire only for a limited period of time, as if tiring after that. As the firing of one memory elements fades within a fraction of a second, the suppression of others equally fades, and the next one, possibly the one with the strongest associative linkages to the previous one, begins firing, suppressing all others in its turn. This establishes a sequence along the line of the strongest association – resulting in an associative thought sequence. This selection of the strongest associative link in thought sequencing is somewhat similar to Darwinian selectivity in the progress of the fittest. The “speed” of thought is given by neural characteristics – and may vary.
The strength of the associative link between memory elements – and, consequently, the direction of the thought sequence, is provided by several factors, principally by the emotional or biological value (experienced poison, danger, or reward) of the stored memory element (provided via the amygdala and other brain nuclei), but also by the habitual perception or usage of that link (as your automatic drive home from work), or by the perceived value of the consequences of the train of visualizations (as when leading to risks or rewards).
Any new perception with high signal strength (for example, the ringing of a telephone) – as determined by valuation – can interrupt the thought sequence through neural inhibition – and lead to its own foreground presence in the mind.
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All of the above results in the mysterious capability for “thought” – to move in a virtual world, to simulate, and to project alternative developments or new objects – or mathematical symbols with their implied meaning – or art – or religion.
The combination of emotions and thought can be seen as the appearance of “mind” among advanced animals.
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Do animals think? Dogs can be observed dreaming – indicating visualization sequences – consequently indicating the capability for thought. Predators can develop hunting strategies – consequently they are capable of thought.
The question arrives, why there is always only one foreground thought at a time even though there are two halves of the brain, with limited connection between them, allowing only for limited inhibition of memory activation sequences between the two halves.
Thought in association with verbal concepts is very common among individuals dedicated to speech or writing and appears as the “inner voice”. It may actually be a secondary phenomenon, with verbal formulation following the preceding perceptual thought (see some cases of mental creativity, verbal aggression and defense in debate, or some newer experiments related to the subject of “free will” – where action is indicated prior to verbal formulation of a reason).
The inner voice may actually be a nuisance at some time, whether as the “voice of the devil” or in not letting the mind rest. But the inner voice is the key capability of poets and writers – or founders of religions (often merely reflecting their own mind as embedded in their culture and not that of a higher being).
The great importance of speech for human mental evolution results from the fact that the evolution of speech recognition and formulation led to the evolution of more complex concepts and systems of thought – and the facility of their communication. Especially we humans developed a wide hierarchy of words, much beyond the capabilities of animals, substantially contributing to cultural progress. Simple words are descriptive of single actions or objects (walk, sit, chair, or table). But more advanced words are summary designations of complex sequences or of groups of objects (for example, furniture, voting, inventing, molecules, Americans). The most advanced words comprise the visualization or communication of complex thought patterns or interpretations of existence (for example, politics, research, religion, relativity theory). The use of such word concepts allowed for very much faster progression and communication of thought and a deeper understanding of existence.
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Given the importance of language for human thought and cultural evolution, it is interesting to note that word concepts, not having any intrinsic invariable substance, have no unique value, varying widely from language to language and in time. Words do not only vary in sounds between different languages, but also in the fine nuances or coverage area of meaning, leaving some words not-translatable or becoming very practical new words in other languages. Since different cultures are sometimes distinguished by a different spectrum of emotions, their languages become a distinct expression of this emotionality – and, consequently are appreciated and guarded.
Mathematical thought, possibly not different from any other symbolic thought, became of high importance as modern science discovered that nature can be understood in mathematical terms, with mathematical expressions being independent of languages or cultures – or residency on Earth – as a universal “language” to communicate “universally” valid thought.
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A specific aspect of thought is the fact that only certain connections of visualizations are acceptable, that there is some “recognition of “truth”, some following of logic. This gave rise to the mental occupation of “philosophy”.
Very important is the thought capability of differentiating between actual perceptions and (only) visualizations – between reality and dreams, between the actual surroundings and a TV-show – but being able to widely span space and time, far beyond our own existence. Pathological failures of these capabilities to distinguish are readily recognized and may become dangerous.
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Emotions, memory, and visualization led to the evolution of the human mind in its capabilities for:
- Creativity, including mathematical creativity
- Ethical thought and judgment
- Personality formation or expression
- Appreciation of Art
- Religion
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Modern science and technology offer vast new capabilities in electronic memory and data processing – not to mention the advances in miniature machinery down to the molecular level in nano-technology. Will these new technological capabilities, as servants of the human mind, extend the mind’s capabilities? How could such an extension of the mind occur and what could it bring? Forecasts usually bring only more of the same. Evolution, however, occurs in “branching” progress as discussed before – and works differently.
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Creativity
Creativity evolved from pattern recognition or, more often, from the “combinatorial” linking of memory or thought elements to form new concepts – as in fire making (possibly 1.5 million years ago) to tool usage, architecture, technical innovation, development of philosophical systems of thought – or the writing of this essay.
There are various forms of creativity and different steps in the progression of creativity. Distinction shall be made between practical creativity leading to new objects or concepts and artistic creativity leading to new sensations or emotional responses. One can also distinguish various levels of creativity, from the smallest steps in detail to new holistic, large-step insights or improvements – giving rise to distinction in level of “intelligence”.
Practical creativity can go through various steps:
- Asking the right questions (the wording of the question often predetermines the final answer)
- Initiation of the right search or experiment
- Pattern recognition among multiple observations or results
- Finding or defining new concepts or structures
- Building a new or expanded system of thought or perceptions
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Seagulls learn to break clam shells by lifting the clams to a certain altitude and dropping them on rocks. Apes learn to extract insects from hiding by means of small sticks and to use stones as breaking tools. The domination of fire (specifically the starting of a fire) may have been the most important step in early ingenuity and, specifically, in human creativity [4]. Thus, the recognition and remembering of successful experiences for later repetition, the building of experience, may have been the beginning of creativity. The recognition of opportunities as occurring in most lives from time to time, the mobilization of initiative for their proper utilization, and the pursuit of the next one is still a significant factor in human life’s success or progress.
The process of mental creativity in arriving at new results or new concepts is, mostly, a “combinatorial” one, combining existing memory elements or new perceptions (see the two essays on mental creativity on the website “ www.schwab-writings.com”).
Consequently, a greater volume, variety, or addressability of available memory elements – the expansion of memory and also of the interconnectivity of memory elements – leads to a higher level of creativity. In teamwork, additional creativity is accomplished by the contribution of different educational background perceptions by the different team members. Equally, new entrants to an established field, or the entry of an individual into a new field of enquiry, can contribute to new creativity – by facilitating new associative connections and new systems of thought.
Initial usage of vaguely defined objectives or words leads to more associations and, possibly, higher creativity (see the historic Japanese approach to problem solving).
Human creativity was halting, at first, during human evolution. But creativity became increasingly appreciated, especially in the Western societies, and progressed more rapidly, especially in our time – leading to an overtaking or replacing of natural evolution, as in the genetic modification of plants and animals. Will there be no end to creativity – or its usefulness?
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Ethics
Basic ethical behavior – to be defined as behavior for the benefit of another individual, even at one’s own expense – is genetically established by nature in consequence of the benefit of prevailing for an individual in a harsh and competitive world – more importantly, among social animals, of the benefit of prevailing by means of group cohesion and coordinated group action.
Natural ethical behavior – genetically founded – can be observed in three ways (and may have resulted from a lack in behavioral maturation from nest or den behavior with multiple siblings to mature independence):
- Caring for offspring and those close of kin, more intergenerationally forward directed and diminishing with genetic distance, leading to wonderful family coherence and, when largely extended, to social balance and support in society – but also to problems of a “Cosa Nostra” duality of morality.
- Reciprocity, as occurring among social animals (as in congregating, grooming, sharing of food, and assistance in fighting) – with the negative consequence in revenge for failed reciprocity or cheating – leading to high values in friendship, to networking in business, and, ideally, to Christian love (“agape”) for other human beings – but also to problems of personal and tribal revenge behavior.
- Sacrificing own benefit and security for the benefit of the pack, as also occurring among social animals: (as when the male animals fight predators to let the female animals with their young gain safety) – in modern society leading to taxation, military service, and public service engagement for the benefit of society – but also to nationalistic extremes with negative consequences.
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In sum, the origin, evolution, and function of societies and the accomplishments of civilizations or cultures are largely based on healthy and balanced ethical emotions and behavior among the members.
These natural ethical emotions are the foundation for the judgment of morally “good” and “bad” and for the emotions of “pride” and “guilt”, or for “conscience”, the feeling of moral self-esteem and communal acceptance (pecking order) resulting from the memory of moral performance.
There are individual variations (and variations with age) in emotional intensity. There are pathological imbalances and deviations in emotions and moral judgment.
All “ethical” behavior is associated with some degree of learning – beginning with the recognition which in a crowd of youngsters is the own offspring, sibling, or parent – and decreases with genetic distance. Most learning is the result from selective observation (see, for example, great loves ending in divorce). This fact presents problems but also opportunities.
The development of more differentiated emotions and thought led to the appearance of ethics beyond the genetically given, ultimately to the complex phenomena of cultural development in societies. This occurs through inclusion of an ever-wider range of individuals in the caring, reciprocity, and personal sacrifice sphere (including charitable aid to the most remote parts of the world, specifically to children). It also occurs in applying ethical behavior to more complex situations – ultimately leading to ethical values for family life, social coherence (civil rights), the conduct of business, politics, international relations, and more – even to the protection of wildlife and the environment.
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Moral laws, ultimately anchored in human needs but then historically anchored in religious teaching or clan culture, evolved through human history. The first written records of “moral” laws are from Urukagina, King of Lagash, in Mesopotamia, also called Uru’inimgina, approximately 2,380 bc, establishing laws against abuse of the poor by the once powerful priests and presenting himself as the protector of the weak, the widows, and orphans. not too much later, certain “moral” teachings appeared in Egypt. Then, a wave of religious an moral teachings went through mankind around 700 to 500 BC, with the appearance of Buddha, Lao-Tse, Confucius, and the composition of the Bible, including the emphasis on morals by Isaiah (about 750 – 700 BC). A new wave of moral teaching appeared with Jesus and some Greek philosophers (Aristotle and the Stoic philosophy). Should one add in later times St. Francis of Assisi, Gandhi, and others?
In our time, moral laws are increasingly determined by public law based on the same general and natural human needs – for security, fairness, freedom, and opportunity – including the punishment of the violators, free-loaders, and cheaters – as an expression of natural revenge emotions, for the necessary deterrent effect, or to isolate the incurably dangerous ones.
Modern public laws of behavior go far beyond the old religious moral laws – with differences in laws resulting from differences in emphasis between different cultures – as for security, protection of property, freedom, balancing of individual interests, protection against misleading behavior, restraint in reciprocal “vengeance”, judgment and treatment of criminals, fairness in offering opportunities, and assistance to the needy.
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The evolution of ethical values goes hand in hand with the evolution of modern societies – or the lack thereof.
Still, there are two directions for moral laws – the satisfaction of emotional needs or utilitarian considerations, the usefulness, the rendering of benefit. Religious laws are somewhere in between, having originated from utility (the Ten Commandments) but having been expanded by rather emotion-based Christian morality.
There are also two distinct attitudes concerning the morality of each step in the behavior (process ethics) or the justification of acts by their moral purpose (result ethics).
The preference for one or the other of the above alternative approaches to morality is mostly not a black-and-white question in extreme cases, but one of degree in gray-zones of decision making in daily life. In other words, observation of what is going on in society leads to the conclusion that the resolution of both of these splits in morality – emotion vs. utility and process vs. result ethics – depends upon the quantitative weight of situations. For example, each individual in our modern society is protected in its basic rights. Lately, however, after 9/11, various governments decided to have their air forces shoot down civilian airplanes full of innocent people if a terrorist on board threatens to use the plane as a tool of attack against the center of a city.
An attempt is under way to let all moral laws of various religious or ethnic origin evolve into a “global” set of moral laws (see, for example, Hans Küng’s writings and proposals that were discussed at the United Nations). To arrive at such a global set of laws, one would need a globally accepted view of the future world, easy to define in the coverage of basic needs, but more difficult to define in higher goals and ambitions. For example, must the rich support the poor when suffering resulted from self-inflicted or addictive behavior? Does everybody have the right to unlimited propagation, irrespective of a sufficient economic base and genetic defects? Are local natural resources for the benefit of local populations only? What migration is permissible? This includes the questions of divorce, abortion, and the human rights of “deviants” – and the consideration of the commonly occurring “unintended consequences”.
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Ethics is also the subject of the rather verbose and involved field of moral philosophy – from Plato and Aristotle to the great teachers of various religions, the thinkers of enlightenment (for example, regarding the question of hypothetical vs. categorical imperatives [Hume vs. Kant]), to modern thinkers – with new contradictions among them appearing all the time (for example, in the old question whether morality is, ultimately, only selfish [Hobbes vs. Feinberg, Gauthier]). “Metaethics” attempts to provide a better definition and understanding of the terms used in the discussion of morality and attempts to distinguish between rational and emotional aspects of moral thought. Normative ethics attempts to provide prescriptive basic rules for moral behavior. Applied ethics is concerned with the analysis of practical ethical behavior. Being part of the wider field of philosophy, moral philosophy attempts to use rationality (for example, in the application of the “prisoner’s dilemma” to mutual disarmament). This leads into problems when discussing the emotionality of so much of morality. While addressing some major questions, moral philosophy is not very suitable to decide daily conflicts between contradictory moral demands (for example, between family and public or charitable demands – and self-realization). Debates among moral philosophers are often reduced to emotionally weighing the skillfully worded but contradictory intellectual arguments.
Modern thought and analysis of moral emotionality and behavior is largely related to analyzing the functioning of the human mind – consequently to the functioning of the brain and biochemistry. Therefore, there should be a new field of “neuro-moral-philosophy” to analyze the old questions of ethics in a new light and understanding. More realistic findings could be expected.
For most ethical behavior there exists a reverse – as cooperation can be reverted to revenge or retaliation – sometimes justified by resulting abhorrence – but often resulting merely in destruction. Moral philosophers have given inadequate attention to this phenomenon.
Additional questions of ethics relate to “morality” in sexual behavior or dress code, to the phenomenon of “honor” (and, when offended, to the need for “satisfaction”, even when very destructive – as in blood feuds or honor killings), and to the questions of “duty” (fulfilling commitments).
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Personality
Differentiation between individuals of the same species is a basic tool of evolution when used for the subsequent prevailing of the fittest. Among humans, such individuality is significant in self-esteem and in finding purpose or direction in life. More importantly, personality influences thought, behavior, consciousness, “free will”, and spirituality.
Is the “personality” of an individual a nature-given constant? Is there an evolution of personality – for individuals or for societies? One should consider the stability, variability, and also the multiplicity of expressions of individual personality (see the essay on “Personality” on the website www.schwab-writings.com in the “Brain-Mind” section).
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Personality – the behavior and even the thought pattern of an individual – is considered stable and characteristic for a given individual. But this assumption is not comprehensively correct.
- Personality varies somewhat with age (especially during adolescence and in advanced age).
- Personality varies quickly but only temporarily in consequence of biochemical effects (alohol, coffee, drugs)
- Personality may be changed by cultural influence, but only for as long as being immersed in or supported by that culture
- Personality can change instantly under the influence of situations – in reaction to irritation, success, or catastrophes
- Personality can change with own thought, as in role-playing, following role models, or in consequence of own determination
- Personality can change in consequence of accidents, diseases, and tumors.
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“Personality” describes regularities in behavior patterns of individuals. The existence of individual personality is a complex phenomenon based on three factors:
- Brain physiology
- Biochemistry
- Perception of the environment that may occur in various ways:
o Adaptation to the surrounding culture
o Learning, adopted religion, or adopted ideology
o Reaction to momentary situations
- Own thought, as in self-selected behavior or following of role models
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Brain physiology establishes the strength of signal projections between various mid-brain nuclei or to the strategy-formulating forebrain – or a lack of such signal strength, possibly in consequence of birth defects, accidents (see the famous Gage case), or medical afflictions.
The biochemical functioning of the body or sensitivity can be equally variable, as demonstrated by degenerative diseases, as, for example, Parkinson’s. More so, the introduction of biochemically active products into the human body can vary behavior patterns and, consequently, “personality”. For example, a cup of coffee in the morning renders a person perkier, sedatives more tranquil. Too much alcohol or addictive drugs can have devastating behavioral influences. Medicines are available to correct some medical, behavioral, or mood problems.
Perception of the environment can result in changes of valuations of associations and can bring about biochemical changes in the body (for example, during phases of rage).
Adaptation to the surrounding culture is widespread and leads to the regional or national character of populations. It also leads prescriptively to community formation as in selective schools (in a positive and in a negative meaning), congregations, monasteries, or the military.
Learning and indoctrination in religious or ideological institutions can lead to variations in the acceptability of behavior and to the stimulation or restraint of behavior.
Reaction to momentary situations demonstrates the multiplicity of potential personality expressions as available to each individual.
This variability indicates the possibility for personality change by means of setting the right circumstances for the desired personality expressions. This option is often overlooked but exceptionally important in selecting a strategy for personality selection or personality-expression modification, whether in personal relations (resulting in harmony or divorce), in personal development (in education, formation), in business (possibly toward trustworthiness or the opposite), or international relations.
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Own thought can have substantial influence on behavior stimulation or restraint. It can lead to the following of role models or to role-playing – another form of multiplicity of personality expressions.
This indicates a degree of personal responsibility for one’s own character as given by the chosen personality expression.
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Art
Considering the large amount of resources individuals and communities spend for art – in their homes, on public spaces, in the form of museums and theaters, in the often expensive architectural design of buildings, or in the time spent admiring art and reading fiction or poetry – one must see art as an especially important accomplishment of human evolution. For a more detailed discussion, see the essay on “Aesthetics, Art, and Culture” in the section “Brain-Mind” on the website www.schwab-writings.com.
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There appear to be four different foundations of art as defined in our time:
- Aesthetic sensitivity
- Emotional stimulation or communication
- Attention-getting (including advocacy)
- Concentration on detail
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Aesthetic sensitivity, mysterious as it is, is sometimes related to simple physical correlations – as in harmonics, being related to even multiples of resonating lengths, see the work by Pythagoras, who exalted his findings into religious teachings. The ideal proportions of ancient buildings (e.g., Greek temples) offer another example. Still, the basic sensitivity for aesthetics appears to be genetically provided and a common gift of nature. Simple decorations appear on all primitive pottery in the history of mankind. All primitive cultures developed music or rhythms. The enjoyment of fragrances, tastes, tactile sensations (for example, the preference of silk over cotton) can be found in all cultures at all times.
Emotional stimulation or communication is mostly accomplished through symbolic presentation – the image of a great leader, the statue of a god, the picture of a hero or saint – and, later, images of beautiful scenery or of familiar settings. Stimulation can be negative – battle scenes, pictures of disasters.
Attention provoking use and abuse of art occurs in politics, in ideological groups, in advocacy, and in commerce through attention-getting, emotional formation of marketing material, and attention-focusing. The arousal of positive feelings of attraction by art is channeled toward the issue of political propagated. The most common is the attempt to associate youthful beauty and attractiveness with the respective issue. On the other hand, technical aesthetics (the design of cars, modern trains, or airplanes), while being attractive, can obviously not be equated with emotionally “good” or “bad”.
Attention-getting effects are increasingly used in modern art and admitted as forms of art – and are exploited in advocacy. Much of modern art seems to be no more than attention getting effects.
Concentration on generally overlooked detail can bring aesthetic, emotional, or intellectual responses and, thereby, become a method with which to produce “art”. This is effective, since our life is over-flooded with sensory inputs – far beyond what we can become “aware” of – and since modern art has opened the door to almost anything that includes either an aesthetic or an emotional effect – with positive or negative value. The concentration on almost any detail of, mainly, visual perception can lead to the observation of aesthetic, emotional, or attention-getting reactions. Just select a detail of observation, frame it or set it on a pedestal, and it is accepted as art – and may be interesting, if not enjoyable.
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4. The Abstract or “virtual” Functions: Consciousness, Free Will, “Soul”,
Spirituality, Religion
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The capabilities of the human mind in emotions, memory, and thought led to the evolution of some aspects of existence that appeared as typical characteristics of humans or, at least, as concerns of philosophy: consciousness, free will, and the “soul”. Beyond that, there were the phenomena of human spirituality and the appearance and evolution of numerous religions. These aspects of human existence or phenomena are discussed in more detail below. In the discussion with progressing science, the question arises again and again: are these phenomena real or just “virtual” phenomena of the mind? As always in philosophical discourse, the definition of terms or concepts is of paramount importance – or can lead to controversy.
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Consciousness:
A meaningful discussion of this subject requires agreement on this concept’s definition. In this essay, consciousness shall be defined as the knowing of oneself as a person and of the surrounding world in space and time – and the resulting capability to reflect upon both within the limits of human thought capability. This definition, while commonly prevalent, is not always followed in the very wide discussion of consciousness through the centuries. For many philosophers, there is often no clear distinction between momentary “awareness” and basic “consciousness” as defined above. As in the case of so many philosophical concepts, one can easily get lost in discussions of semantics and word definitions. Science has not sharply defined the concept of consciousness either, with different scientist using different definitions.
In a more specific usage of verbal concepts, “awareness” is a different concept and should be used for the momentary foreground presence of nerval or mental focus – as a worm beginning to wriggle when being poked with a stick or an animal suddenly becoming “aware” of a predator or hunter – or we being aware of a specific foreground phase of thought or perception.
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The human mind can present only one focus or thought in awareness at any one time – even though multitasking is possible by means of subconscious thought, fast awareness-switching, or use of the cerebellum part of the brain [5]. Awareness must be analyzed in neurological terms. The neural explanation of awareness – mainly of visual perceptions – has been specifically investigated and excellently described by Christof Koch in his book The Quest for Consciousness (Roberts & Co., 2004, ISBN 0-9747077-0-8) mentioned in a prior footnote.
Awareness is already given, when sensory input leads to a muscular reflex, as in primitive organisms. Awareness becomes more complex when it leads to the call-up of memory and, more so, when memory elements lead to competition in consequent behavior selection or when trains of “thought” are stimulated in the human brain. At that point, awareness flows into consciousness, especially when leading to new memory.
“Consciousness”, discussed for some time by philosophers and more recently by scientists, is a somewhat fuzzy concept. It is generally understood to be a holistic concept for the capability to be aware – anytime when and if focusing on this subject – of oneself and the surrounding world in space and time [6]. There is also the concept of the “subconscious”, the momentary or continued mental activity that does not reach awareness – as when driving along a familiar road. When an important subconscious thought reaches awareness, it is considered an “intuition”.
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For many philosophers and for some scientists, “consciousness” is the most mysterious essence of being human. In general and for scientists, it is very surprising that consciousness can be explained simply as a virtual effect resulting from the capability for memory of past sensory perceptions, visualizations, and past own thought within the concepts of time and space, as commonly available to the perception of our minds based on the memory capability of the brain. This fact renders “consciousness” nothing but a virtual phenomenon resulting from memory and thought visualization – specifically when containing memory of wide areas of space and time, thereby allowing us to gloriously transcend individual existence.
It is posited that such memory of the sum of past sensory perceptions, past visualizations, and past own thought – in their full coverage in space and time – is necessary and sufficient for “consciousness” as defined above to occur – with whatever emotional connotation (or not) as provided by the emotion-sensing individual.
As indicated earlier, memory elements are synaptically interconnected providing for associative linkage in thought. If a primitive person has seen only one chair before in a hut, then the concept of “chair” will be mentally connected only to the hut and possible events that occurred surrounding the chair. But when another person is a professional designer of airplane seats, then the concept of “chair” may have a much wider variety of associations, from materials used to applications and experiences with that product – rendering a much greater addressability of the concept “chair” by means of such synaptic connectivity – and rendering that person’s “consciousness” that much more complex.
In sum, consciousness is as developed as the duration, quantity, and refinement of memory (to also include, for example, elements of emotions, verbal concepts, and timing) and the complexity or multiplicity of the memory’s addressability or connectivity.
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Is consciousness restricted to humans? Every dog which scratches where it itches (and stops chasing its own tail) is aware of itself. Every predator with a strategy for capturing prey is aware of the surrounding world.
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“Free Will”:
A definition of free will should be at the beginning of any discussion of this subject but usually is lacking – because it is difficult to arrive at and agree upon such a definition. One may have to distinguish “free will” from predictability of behavior.
One may also have to ask oneself the key question how a person with a “free” will would decide differently from a person who lacks “free will”. Is unrestrained expression of personal preferences equal to free will? If there is another explanation, that, too, could be “programmed” into an “unfree” mind – to render the two indistinguishable once more.
Do moral and public laws establish restraints on free will? Does lack of physical or mental capabilities or lack of knowledge – factual or cultural – form a restraint on free will?
The answers come easy in extreme cases (black-and-white discussions), but are more difficult to find in gray-zone cases.
People do not generally jump from bridges. In that sense, they are predictable. But that does not mean they lack free will. They just do what they deem best. Addicts need drugs to satisfy their addiction. Do addictions render people totally un-free? Or do addicted individuals also only do what they deem best for themselves? In general, decisions are made based on one’s natural constitution or on what one has learned, experienced, or is expected to do within one’s culture.
There can be various perspectives in the discussion of free will:
- Determinism: Neural determinism, quantum mechanical effects in the brain, expression of will as a phenomenon of Chaos Theory, and unpredictability on account of feedback phenomena in the brain
- Free will in the sense of a fully independent will, independent of the will of other individuals
- Free will as an expression of personality and selection of personal preferences. How else would an un-free will decide (possibly not differently)?
- Newer insight into decision-making processes as found in economic theories.
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Determinism can be seen on the physical level – the neurophysiological level – or on the psychological level – the learning and environment level.
Decisions are made by brain processes. They follow synaptic connections and biochemical conditions. In sum, there is a neurological aspect of free will and determinism. The old philosophy of determinism in the physical world (for example, by Laplace) was dissolved by the random effects of probability of quantum mechanics and by the unpredictability indicated by Chaos Theory. The study of the brain (see above) indicates a vast amount of causality of all neural effects. But the study of the brain also indicates vast areas of unpredictability of synaptic expressions and, quite importantly, of signal timing – and the effect of personal preferences on neural synaptic strength formation due to personal valuations. This leads back to the statement that free will becomes the expression of individual personality and personal preferences – some given by nature, some acquired inadvertently, some after personal deliberation. This may render a person’s decisions predictable, yet remaining the expression of a free will.
The newest experiments with decision making in the brain indicate a “subconscious” brain activity preceding the conscious decision [7]. This is seen by some philosophers and scientists as an indication of determinism of will under the influence of neural brain functions. There may be a problem with the interpretation of this finding as determinism. Subconscious thought is a form of “thought”, after all – see the two essays about mental creativity on the website www.schwab-writings.com. Subsequent and “aware” thought follows associative sequences in the brain leading to explanations – sometimes to “a-posteriori” justifications. The original and subconscious thought still was the expression of that person.
If awareness is equated with verbal awareness, then one must consider that verbalization always follows actual thought and decision making by a certain amount of time (about at least 1/10 of a second).
Limits in decision-making result from limitations of knowledge and personality strength or weaknesses – for the latter, including the influence of the environment and culture, see the essay on personality on the website www.schwab-writings.com. In sum, expressions of will result from the sum of what was genetically given and what was learned (and biochemical effects in the brain, as from stimulants or drugs). This allows for some predictability. It also leads to mitigating considerations in judging other people, specifically in criminal justice, and to approaches for the treatment of people, whether they are considered normal or not.
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How would a person with a “free” will ever decide differently from a person lacking “free will”? Would not either strive to express himself or herself? In other words, why should a “free” person want to be somebody different?
Actors can play roles. Most people can assume different personality traits under different circumstances. Decisions can be changed in consequence of challenged behavior or own thought. Even “arbitrary” behavior can result from such a challenge – at least the opposite of what would have to be expected – see adolescents in opposition to their parents.
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Independently free will – beyond self-expression on the known level and expression of given personality – would require omniscience and total independence of personality factors – still leaving, for example, the search for common benefit in a cultural setting – another restriction to “free will” in a philosophical sense.
Could preferences remain? One person may prefer one color over others, one taste over others, or one fragrance over others. Does that constitute lack of free will? Would free will require absolutely no preference? That would make many decision situations unresolvable – leaving the need for action to arbitrary choice – even requiring external decision tools such as dice when personal decisions are no longer possible.
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People who cannot decide are not well suited for practical life. Nature appears to have provided for decision mechanisms in uncertainty – most likely to be found in neural signal-balancing within the brain, combining sensory inputs, midbrain signals (emotions), and frontal cortex processes (thought).
It is interesting to note that even when individuals possess vast knowledge, effects that are distant in time and space are heavily discounted (for example, maintenance tasks, the need for saving for a “rainy day” or for retirement, prevention of global warming and climate change in the future).
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If there is no “free will”, would we just be like the balls in a game of pool, without true “values”, with no freedom and, consequently, no responsibility? In sum, while “freedom of will” cannot be “proven” and is lost in philosophical semantics, the hypothesis of “free will”, the freedom to express oneself, still provides the more viable approach to life – leaving “determinism” as an obsessive concern, if not an excuse – but also leaving the need for understanding and proper treatment for those who got into trouble and are (or merely feel) “guilty” – and still leaving the challenge to do right in our lives.
Newer theories of decision-making in economics require the differentiation in the assessment between “economic values” (utilities), often measurable, and beliefs (as in the assessment of estimated probabilities and risks), often given incorrect weight. Both can have emotional content.
It is an important capability of the human brain that it can arrive at decisions in uncertainty – and, in most situations of practical life, does so within a relatively short time – as the resources and time for deeper analysis of situations is mostly not given.
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Soul
“Soul”, differently defined by different writers, is a linguistic concept that attempts to describe some ultimate essence of a person, like a spiritual homunculus within that person.
Historically, the idea of a “soul” existing independently of the body may have resulted from dreams, the human capability for spirituality (discussed below), religions, and the experience of death – of somebody fully being with you one moment, being fully alive, and then, subsequently, seeing an immovable body, as if that person were just dreamingly absent.
Is there a “soul”? What would it be? The “essence” of a person should include that person’s personality (based largely on individual neurophysiology, biochemistry, and cultural experience), that person’s perceptions (for example, to perceive an afterlife), and some of that person’s memory, at least to know who he or she is and relates to.
Why would the soul exist independent of the body, the brain? Why would the soul not be just an expression of the brain (its memory and its “personality”)? There are many obvious indications of the interdependence within the biological “system” body-brain – see the result of accidents, diseases, or aging. There are no indications to ever see the essence of a person being independent of bodily givens. In other words, the “soul” would be as variable as the structures of the body or brain, and would change as those do. This leaves the concept of “soul” only as a practical linguistic expression, to describe the mental aspects of a person in a holistic way, but without any “real” content – similar to the concept of “culture” for an ethnic group.[8]
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Spirituality
“Spirituality” refers to mental phenomena beyond logical thought or memory, expected to provide additional insight – as in visions – or capabilities – as for healing. It is believed that certain spiritual experiences can unexpectedly occur, others are searched for in meditation.
Brain research has found that dominant and routine daily thought occurs primarily in the left side of the brain and is more detailed or quantitative. Only upon the calming of active thought does right-sided activity of the brain prevail. It is mostly of a more geometric (visual) and holistic nature. This has led to better recognition of some situations in life and to greater creativity, even in scientific research (see the occurring of major mental break-throughs).
Equally important is the fact that “visualizations” in thought often are correlated with emotions. Calmness is seen mostly as pleasant. Consequently, meditation leading to holistic insight combined with calmness can be seen as a special experience, described as “spiritual”. However, extreme cases of meditation, sensory withdrawal, and physical imbalance through dieting can lead to “hallucinations” and virtual recognitions without real content, as in “enlightenment”. “Enlightenment” has never permitted the solution of any social, political, or practical problem.
It is known that body biochemistry influences emotions. It is equally known that emotional states can influence the body, including endocrine functions and immune responses. The correlation of meditative, “spiritual” settings with emotions leads to either the medically disturbing or the medically healing effect of spiritual experiences. Seeing ghosts can lead to loss of hair color, rashes, and digestive dysfunction; yet spiritual phenomena can also be very helpful in healing or stabilization.
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In most cases, moderate forms of spiritual pursuits – as meditation, the consequent calming and regaining of a holistic view of life – can be very beneficial.
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Religion
The verbal concepts of “religion” or “transcendental” refer to phenomena beyond the physical world and scientific understanding (the latter always requiring verification by reproducible, factual experiments). Most religions are connected with moral teaching – even though this is not a necessary connection.
The theme of “Religion” is discussed in detail in the essay “Religion: What Is Religion? What Should Religion Be?” to be found on the website “www.schwab-writings.com” in the section on “Philosophy/Theology”. That essay covers the following aspects of religion:
- What is the origin of religions?
- What provides for the stability of religions?
- What provides for the change or evolution of religions?
- What would be a beneficial approach to the question of religiosity?
- What benefits and problems derive from organized religion – congregations, churches?
- Would other “conscious”, extraterrestrial beings in the universe have any religion?
- What is “cosmotheology”?
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How did religions originate and evolve? Historically, religions are a universal phenomenon of mankind – naturally originating and evolving from the universal human search for causality in natural phenomena which are beyond understanding. The universal capability of the human brain for visualizations of the mind then led to the assumption of unseen, spiritual causations of such otherwise unexplainable phenomena (the movement of the sun, wind, lightning, earthquakes, diseases, unforeseen probabilistic accidents all led to a belief in gods in the antique world and other civilizations). Once a transcendental, virtual world was seen as the home of the gods, the phenomenon of death, the parting of a living being, led to the concept of ongoing life in that other world and, consequently, to the immortality of the “soul”.
The resulting attempts to obtain favorable influence by such spiritual forces led to various forms of sacrifices to the spiritual forces (gods) and to rituals in all cultures.
Sooner or later, all religions connected the expected divine favors or misfortune with proper human, god-pleasing behavior or lack thereof. This evolved into the search for acceptable god-pleasing moral laws, expected from divine revelations or from proclamations by religious leaders.
Our modern time, more than any other, has emphasized the human search for a meaning in life on Earth – a search for personal values, purpose, and direction.
In times past, the struggle for survival and fulfillment of basic needs was predominant. Throughout most of history, people were tied to their occupations – as farmers, fishermen, or in the trades. In our time, in the developed countries, there is some surplus in resources and, mainly, there are more choices in life regarding occupation and priorities in values. There is more pressure on demonstrating personal value and accomplishment in real or idealistic terms. Furthermore, the sciences and general education have brought more knowledge about the world we live in and its evolution in time – concerning the universe, natural evolution, and historic development of mankind. This leads to questions concerning the essence of life and of existence. Religion is often expected to provide explanations concerning meaning or purpose and guidance for our lives and actions.
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How did religions evolve and what did they bring?
Only selective observation allowed the maintaining of the belief that sacrifices and “acceptable” behavior (or the following of the moral “laws”) leads to either divine favors on Earth – or to our surrender to misfortune in this world (even though attempts were made to teach and prove this correlation even in our own time). Observation, however, indicates that too often, the “bad” individuals fare well and too many innocent or “good” individuals suffer in this world – just read the newspaper for a few days.
A valid religion cannot only be the one of the survivors and the lucky ones, but should also be valid for the innocent ones who perished and suffered in spite of their good deeds and prayers.
Putting together the above elements of basic religious beliefs and observations, evolution in religions found a solution in the concept of a judgment of the souls after death and a compensating afterlife – pleasant (in paradise or in Nirvana) for the “good” and tormented (in hell) for the “bad”.
Many religions still show a mix of the above elements – maintaining sacrifices and ritual for the presumed pleasure of the gods and a morally acceptable behavior to obtain divine favors or avoid punishment in this world – combined with a belief in a last judgment and a compensating afterlife.
Concerning the questions of meaning, purpose, and direction in life, the different religions, as they evolved, came to similar conclusions – finding the only answer – in a single-perspective view – in the proposed effort to get out of this world and into the next one as safely as possible, through collection of merit in this world – with merit generally described in moral or charitable terms – and in the providing of sustenance (if not wealth) for monasteries or churches.
In the practical world, a remnant of historic, older goals and directions remained – mainly among the governing and warrior classes – values described, for example, by fidelity, honor, courage, and conquest.
Then came the Renaissance, bringing with it an emphasis on learning, mental exploration, and the arts as a significant field of human expression and experience – thereby leading to “fulfillment” of life. This development was accelerated by the rise of the middle class, specifically later, during the industrial revolution and in democracies.
While not presented by any of the great teachers of mankind or ideologies, our modern world, actually accepted a triple perspective on meaning and purpose of life and direction to pursue – mental growth and exploration, ethical and charitable goodness, and an enjoyment of the world in beauty and culture.
However, all religions accepted the need for mankind to somehow establish law and order and to provide some public social balancing of fortune between the rich and the poor in this world.
In some cultures, this allowed the ruling Imams, Mullahs, or kings and nobility to see this task as their God-instituted mandate, as an extension of God’s power and action in this world. Democracy did not find acceptance in their mindset – as it is not fully part of the modern Muslim world or other fundamentalists either.
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Many aspects of the old religions have disappeared in our time – with different rates of fading among different populations – sometimes resulting in liberation of the people, sometimes leaving them in mental insecurity and deep loneliness. The loss or absence of religion, while greatly liberating for some, may be heavily felt as a loss by the suffering and lonely – specifically when social bonds do not step in to help or to provide an avenue for corrective action.
What is left of evolving religions? Even in our “scientific” time, the remaining question of the origin of the universe is still the most fundamental enigma leading to transcendental if not religious explanations, beyond the sciences. The basically intellectual characteristics of the nascent universe, called “Creation” in the religious view – energy (fields in the vacuum), forces, natural laws, basic principles, constants of nature, and quantum mechanics – can or must be found in a transcendental force or spirit (beyond scientific or physical explanation) – as an essence of existence – that one cannot give a name, but commonly calls “God” (or just “the Structure Providing Essence of Existence”).
Yet, the assumption of a transcendental origin of the universe does not imply an ongoing involvement of this originating essence in natural evolution or human history (the question of the “living God”) or a personal helping responsiveness of this essence to human prayer (the “personal God”) or a final “judgment” of souls after their death.
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And what are religious or divine “revelations”? The brain’s capability for the visualization of verbal concepts, appearing as the common phenomenon of the “inner voice” – see the discussion of visualizations of the brain above. This can lead, in the believer’s mind, to the perception of verbal divine religious inspirations. Depending where one stands denominationally, such verbal visualizations or revelations are either accepted as of divine origin or are totally rejected (see the voices experienced by early Christians, by Mohammed in perceiving the Koran, by Joseph Smith in perceiving the Book of Mormon, by certain preachers of our days in various religious sects, or as reported by numerous individuals from their experiences, whether sane or considered insane).
The inner voice and its interpretation, whether in positive ideas or, in its reverse, as the perceived “voice of the devil”, can be a constructive or saving force as historically perceived by leaders of their respective cultures – or may become a curse to society and the afflicted individuals. But the inner voice is mostly just a product of the creative imagination of individuals resulting from a mix of their prior perceptions and personal associative thought, always very much founded in their respective historic and cultural setting.
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Some of the most important dogma of religions refers to the continues existence of the “soul” after death. If the “soul” is the carrier of an individual’s personal essence, this should imply the preservation of the individual’s mental capabilities and personality. The possibility of separating mental capacities from the brain and letting them exist immaterially is not accepted by science – nor by observation of the directly commensurate impact of diseases, cancer, surgery, accidents, or aging on the brain and on personality.
Can there be a permanent “life” for reincarnated “souls” after bodily death? Can one expect some storage of anything, including all souls, for eternity? One must consider the fact that our solar system will burn out when our Sun has consumed its energy supply. The whole universe will burn out in due time. All of the universe will end either in a collapse or in a few black holes that will dissipate over very long times into ever-expanding and cooling radiation. The whole concept of the universe or nature does not indicate or allow a permanent storage of anything, anywhere – but rather the coming, flourishing, and subsequent disappearing of all phenomena of existence.
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An additional warning: While one always sees an exception for one’s own religion from criticism, it is easily piled on other religions – and vice versa. But unrealistic religious expectations lead to a misdirected life.
On the other hand, one should not overlook that benevolent religions can bring comfort and strength to the weak, suffering, lonely, and hopeless where nothing else can – sometimes for their benefit – but sometimes preventing them from activating their own remaining strength to pursue a more beneficial course in resolving their problems.
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The ethical or moral laws of most ethnic groups are anchored in religious beliefs. Religious people fear that the abolition or loss of religiosity would lead to loss of ethical or moral behavior, excessive selfishness, greed, licentious behavior, and aimlessness in life. This may not be true. Basic ethical emotions are genetically given and a necessity for continuation of life – specifically, for social life (as in caring for offspring, reciprocity in friendship, sacrifice for the group, and respect for others). The basic human nature and strictly practical considerations will not only continue to support basic “ethical” or “moral” laws, but their expansion is visible in all the civic and criminal laws of modern nations. Actually, the Ten Commandments do not contain any charity or the prohibition of cheating. They were merely the minimal practical laws for cohabitation in society.
Religions tend to promote a very human image of God. But even if only a “God of Creation” remains in the mind of modern people, the grandiose vastness and intellectuality of the laws and principles of nature would not allow a “human” image of the Structure Providing Essence of Existence. [9]
Organized religions can easily become closed systems of thought, incapable of further evolution or of keeping pace with the evolution of human knowledge, thought or cultures. It can happen that this incapability for evolution holds up the evolution of the underlying culture and society. The poor performance of societies dominated by religious hierarchies are examples.[10]
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The evolution of religion appears to occur, as the evolution of species in nature, subject to random events of history and the appearance of variations of thought (in the minds of the reformers) in accordance with borderline conditions and opportunities. Jesus, Mohammed, and Buddha were individuals embedded in their time and culture, and so were Luther and Gandhi – and brought innovations commensurate with opportunities – Buddha gained India at first, then lost it all, but won over all of China – Luther, gaining only in northern Europe, impacted the rest of the world only over centuries.
The above-mentioned essay on “Religion” indicates that the wide variety of cultures with their different states of evolution and the wide variety of human individuals on Earth actually did need a certain variety of religions:
o The old cults of offering minor symbolic sacrifices and giving thanks to the forces of nature and of destiny in a simple way – for those who live close to nature and for the simple of mind.
o The strict faith in moral laws and a divine judgment – for our urban societies as they become wealth-, power-, and pleasure-oriented.
o The faith in humanely addressable, merciful forces of destiny, in forgiveness, love, and the Christian concept of a merciful “God-Father” – for the many sensitive individuals who struggle in life, who sincerely search, and must often suffer so very much in this world, also in compassion – and also for the gratefully joyous ones to direct their thanks.
o The abstract view of the grandiose, dynamic universe with its finely tuned forces and natural laws and the uniqueness of the consciously thinking, sensing, and acting living beings therein with their search for meaning, purpose, and direction – with emphasis on not relying on an interfering god, but on personal responsibility and initiative in the often desperate effort to fulfill the basic needs in sustenance and caring for family and clan, in the often very harsh struggle for further security and means for action, and, under favorable circumstances, in the mental fulfillment of one’s own life and in contribution to the improvement of the surrounding world – through personal exploring development, through caring and compassionate (Christian) service to others, the community, and our environment – and with joy in observing the beauty of Creation and the arts – but also with acceptance of the unavoidable.
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Religions denying the world and advising withdrawal cannot be seen as corresponding to the nature of this universe. Acceptance of suffering does not imply condoning it.
Other religions, seeing most events of life on Earth as directed by transcendental forces and suggesting the reliance on these forces, even if this force is believed to be God, may weaken, if not mislead, their followers and, mainly, reduce their responsibility. Still other religions, strictly settling inflexibly on views and laws of the time of their origin, miss ongoing evolution and become stifling or oppressive.
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A helpful religion would have to leave human evolution open-ended, as all evolution, but would strengthen human dedication and initiative toward the general directions indicated above – while offering some peace in the vision of being embedded in a so much larger universe of transcendental origin – and our hopefully peaceful return thereto.
The mitigation of suffering and opening of opportunities fairly to all were indicated as general goals. Buddhism believes that joy must be forgone to end suffering, since both are interconnected. There is the observation that people with a permanently good life are superficial and sometimes cannot find happiness either. But there can be no doubt that the ample amount of suffering in this world from diseases, predators, loneliness, corruption, crime, and accidental occurrences calls for urgent help. To let suffering continue in order to keep balancing joy seems out of line. The wise among the wealthy or permanently happy remain actively involved in compassionate service to the less fortunate – to do what is right and to keep their human balance – until they learn the harshness of real life first hand.
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A closing comment: the loss of religion would leave many people with a grave loss of support – especially among the suffering ones of those religions which present God as a loving “father” – and among those who lack support by social bonds and do not find a way to translate their suffering into corrective action. The loss of religion also leaves prior believers with mental emptiness. But it does not have to be like that. We are left with the fact that we are part of the universe as it was created, like a small thread in a large and colorful tapestry, existing “for the pleasure of the Creator”.
All we can do is flourish and grow as and where we are, like all other living beings are expected to. We can love and caringly serve our family, nation, mankind, and the environment at large – trying to help in mitigating suffering, in opening of opportunities, in establishing a morally or ethically and emotionally humane society, and in caring for the sanity of spaceship Earth, our only home in the universe. We can also enjoy all the beauty in nature and our arts or culture.
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And when we find death, the near-death reports indicate that we can hope to find unspeakable peace in our last moments and may see a wondrous great, central light as our mind fades away.
030711 was 11-11-05
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3.2. The Origin, Evolution, and Function of Society, Culture, and Beyond
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3.2.1 Another Step of the “Combinatorial Principle”: New Dimensions
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The origin and foundations of societies can be found in forces of group coherence that evolved on account of their benefit to the group and became genetically anchored, in ethical behavior: the supporting care for others, cooperation, and sacrifice for the common good, see Chapter 3.1.1.
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In that sense, the origin and formation of societies corresponds to a basic phenomenon of nature. The combination of atoms to form molecules, the combinations of cells to form complex organisms, or the combination of words to form sentences can be loosely compared to the combination of individuals to form complex societies.
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In becoming a member of a society, the individual loses or surrenders part or all of his or her independent behavior and gains significance in his place within the higher order of things. Not only behavior, but also individual thought may have to be adjusted to integrate into society. Even the lead individuals may be influenced in their behavior and, in their minds, playing the role that they assume to be expected of them by their followers, sometimes being more pushed by the crowd than leading. This acting, as presumed to be expected by the respective “society” or group, is quite pronounced in political parties, but also in industrial or charitable organizations. It can lead to differences in ethical judgment or behavior when acting for or within the group, as compared to acting in the private sphere. This can also lead to greater heroism of individuals being part of a group (as in a military unit) or to senseless stampedes in a crowd. Such descriptive observation can lead to prescriptive suggestions to facilitate behavior change or behavior maintenance. For example, it has led to the formation of congregations by religious movements – or to the removal of sect members from their group to allow them to return to balance.
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There are a number of predecessor phenomena to human societies to be found in nature: the swarm of fish, birds, or insects, the herd or the pack of animals, the human family, and the tribe. They all are examples of the above-mentioned “Combinatorial Principle” of evolution. There are observations in nature indicating that “swarms” of individually judging organisms demonstrate a “wisdom of crowds” by averaging individual error rates in danger avoidance or resource location. The history of successful cultures may indicate the same – but the phenomena of mass hysteria tell another story, even in their milder forms, where judgments can be correlated and errors magnified.
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These predecessor phenomena present a variety of characteristics. Swarms of fish or birds do not seem to have any hierarchies or leaders, yet are able to act in unison, as in the direction of their movement. Herds or packs of animals have a primitive structure, with different roles for males and females and certain lead animals, which can direct the motion of the herd and have preference in procreation. The most differentiated are some insect swarms (for example, bees) with physical differentiation of individuals by function and extreme subordination of individuals under the common interest.
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The human family used to function in a similar way as certain animal packs – especially in early times when having been multigenerational and including unmarried relatives and subordinated auxiliary members. There was the lead-individual, mostly male, occasionally female. But, with the availability of language, there was discussion or debate. As siblings split away from the core family but stayed in the neighborhood, practical reasons of cooperation in complex tasks (hunt, construction of large buildings), defense, conquest of new territories, and common resource-utilization (allocation or irrigation of fertile ground, partition of fishing catch) necessarily led to the evolution of additional structures, ultimately resulting in societies. The groups of humans with strong bonds of society coped better and prevailed – but the ones with excessive rigidity lacked innovation. Thus, our modern type of human behavior as a social beings evolved.
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The history of the fall or decay of civilizations is another story – of succumbing to superior weaponry of invaders, to better leadership, or in consequence of their own civic decay. But first some comments on the origin and evolution of societies:
The invention of husbandry and agriculture, the generation of surplus resources and idle time, and population growth with consequent warfare for needed territory led to the evolutionary formation of larger social units with more important political, military, and religious hierarchies, served by more subordinates occupied in the military, trades, arts, commerce, and rituals. Large societies, beyond extended clans, began to emerge, possibly first in Sumeria, southern Mesopotamia, sometime before 3,000 BC – not very much later on the Nile and among the Dravidians on the upper Indus River and in the south of India – all rather soon connected by trade. Additional societies became connected through wars and commerce. This led to the exchange of ideas and the acceleration of cultural evolution.[11]
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A similar, but totally disconnected development took place in Central America, first possibly in the coastal area of Peru near Caral, north of Lima, but later also in other places.
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As societies evolved, became larger and more complex, complex systems for communication, command, and control necessarily evolved – in a balance between specialization and coordination.
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The evolution of human societies seems to indicate that there are trade-offs between emphasis on individuality and adherence to common behavior, between freedom and order, between stability and evolution.
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It is interesting to note that societies do not necessarily have any permanent material substance. They can move from building to building. Their individual members are exchanged through aging or hiring-and-firing. Their inventories or financial resources are just cycled through. The essence of societies is abstract, consisting only of their configuration (Gestalt), and even that may be evolving in time – similar to what was mentioned about human existing, where the material content of the body may be cycled through and evolve while the “human individual” remains as such.
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3.2.2 Main Dimensions of Societies
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The new dimension (with the concept of “dimension” to be understood as a specific aspect or expression of existence in the universe) of human “society” had never appeared before and was now evolving beyond the primitive predecessor phenomena described above. As indicated, societies resulted from the fact that individuals adjusted or subordinated their behavior in order to facilitate group action. Such adjustment or subordination was based on a variety of constellations in either forced dominance-submission schemes or on habitual or voluntary consensus-building, resulting in a large variety of structures of society, from loose brotherhoods to hordes, oligarchies, democracies (with a large variety of interpretations of inclusiveness and civil rights), monarchies (of different types, from absolute to constitutional or elective), tyrannies (including consensus of the ruled or not), and dictatorships. [12]
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Societies, in many ways, are similar to organisms, including their urge for survival, noticeable even among the smallest clubs and political, social, or charitable organizations. This may result not only from commercial interests of employees, but also from the fact that many individuals as members of societies see part of their personal – at least mental – existence anchored in the association with such a society, seeking to protect that aspect of their existence.
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Our culture may still supremely value the individual – its freedom, its meaning of life in personal development and expression, and in its rights –, but, as a matter of fact, the significance of individuals in our time is often seen in direct proportion to their significance in or for our society.
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In a functioning society, one can observe the evolution of the following “dimensions” or aspects of its expression:
- Various forms of coordination, dominance or submission between individuals or groups
- Establishment and maintenance of law and order
- Various methods of consensus-forming
- Culture (including ritual, fashion, art, and formulation of values)
- Politics (methods of governance)
- Economics and Commerce
- Technology development, industry, transportation
- Education and research organizations
- Religious organizations, churches, monasteries, religious hierarchies
- Military establishments for protection and organized warfare
- Welfare for the poor and medical systems for the sick
- The unique function of literature and the media
- Directions of societies (religious foundation and proselytizing, commercial, freedom, conquest)
- Personality-like characteristics of societies (for example, aggressive versus peaceful)
and more
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Coordination does not require dominance by the few and may occur by common self-interest or common exposure to external forces, for example, in “free market” scenarios. Dominance, occurring in various forms of more or less intense command and control in all types of government, implies the imposition of will or force on others [13] – often justified by external dangers (or “market failures” in economic terms) – but those dangers being equally often caused by government failures (“non-market failures”). Mental dominance can occur among individuals or among groups. The consequence of dominance is submission – if not evasion. This establishes a basic structure among groups of people and evolves into a rudimentary “society”. In sophisticated societies or organizations, dominance or submission is voluntary, as in the political order, in police action in traffic control, in organizational structures in industry, or in command structures in the military. In any event, the proper institution of dominance and submission schemes is the foundation of a functioning “society”.
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The establishment and maintenance of law and order and, in this sense, confidence-building among its members serves not only emotional needs but serves the efficiency of all forms of operation (in economic terms, “lowering of transaction costs”). This leads back to the discussion of ethics and moral laws with their foundations in both, emotions and utility. This maintenance of law and order actually takes place not only formally through laws, a legal system, and the police, but also informally through accepted cultural values and behavior. Full regulatory control would be cumbersome (see the orthodox Jewish multiplicity of laws), if not impossible, since life’s evolution can never be fully predicted.
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Consensus-forming, also occurring in various forms in all types of government, is the process of influencing and coordinating the focusing, selective observation, and preference-weighing of a group of individuals. The first scientific observation of the behavior of multitudes in uncertainty and their formation of consensus was done and expertly described by the early sociologist Gustave Le Bon.[14] For example, he describes how “masses” of people in uncertainty may mill around for a while, consider one or another alternative solution, until one solution gains increasing attention and, finally, unites the multitude to act in a certain direction. This process, appearing more “democratic” than the phenomenon of arbitrary dominance, may appear as the quintessential evolution from individual to group existence – where not the individual leads a singular existence, but the group or “society” is the principal phenomenon of existence, with the individual just being an element of it, like a cell in an organism. Individuals with divergent opinions are swept along, unable to exist independently of the group. The majority of individuals assume behavior consistent with or for the benefit of the group. This is also visible with the behavior of individuals in modern industrial organization.
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“Free markets” in our time attempt to provide efficient information processing and decision making mechanisms in a very complex world. On the other hand, the global character or the free market and the inherent global dangers in market failures let the need for global governance appear more urgent. Such failures may be not only of economic nature, but include ecological dangers as, for example, global warming.
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Consensus forming on a large scale does not necessarily imply homogeneity (generally more efficient), but may leave justification for diversity resulting in higher flexibility.
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Culture is a fuzzy linguistic concept, often describing the totality of a society’s characteristics. As a general definition, it can include a society’s common world view, values (including human rights in politics, civic obligations, and common heroes or role models), type of education, rituals, habits, artistic expression, language, religion, and common history, as when talking about the “culture” of a specific ethnic group or geographic area.
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In a narrow definition, “culture” refers more specifically to the world of the arts: the offering in theaters, concerts, museums, libraries, the production of literature, and architecture (see the essay, “Aesthetics, Art, and Culture” on the website www.schwab-writings.com.), as when talking about the “cultural life or character” of a city. It is amazing how much of private resources are spent for embellishment in each home and of public resources for embellishment and the cultural offering in each community.
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In the unending evolution of higher forms of existence, multi-level hierarchies of cultures have evolved – for example, the superimposed cultures of nations over provinces (for example, of “America” over “Texas”, of “France” over “Provence”, of “Germany” over “Bavaria”) and of federations or continents over nations (for example, of “Europe” over “France”) – with often Darwinian evolutions as in biology.
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The phenomenon of large-scale immigration in the Western countries has led to another form of cultural hierarchy, with the historically local culture being seen as the one to maintain the direction of society (see the German discussion of “Leitkultur” and the corresponding French discussion of the dominant French culture in France). In the USA, the discussion is not focused, remaining on the general level of acceptance of “diversity” but insisting on a common history and values derived from the time of the founding of the American society in the 18th century and its early development thereafter (see the reciting of American values in work ethics, family, and the political structure). It will be interesting to observe whether the American – and now, united European – society can ever do without a uniting “culture” and how it will be defined as the joining of new nations in Europe and large-scale immigration in the USA continue. And how about the United Nations attempting to form a super-national world society¾on the basis of what culture? Can America and Europe be covered by the same “culture” as Iran, Iraq, China, India, Lesotho, and Tovalu?
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Politics is the art of getting some action in governance without dictatorial dominance – often in the form of establishing policies. It is a form of consensus-forming and, sometimes, manipulation among individuals for the purpose of directing society at large – if not for gaining personal power. It implies “leadership” (strength of character, charisma, psychological impact), conviction, persuasion, favoritism or networking, barter of votes and support, threat or blackmail, excellence in having better information or skills, and capability for fundraising. Politics also includes the manipulation of mass psychology to get public support, to remain in power, or to be reelected – this often being the highest goal for politicians. In this sense, politics can be the highest calling for an individual who wants to serve the common good, a form of intellectual art for the greatest benefit of society, it may also require some realistic practicality – or it can be misused.
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In this sense, politics presents an evolution of human thought and creativity to other dimensions than individual life, the dimensions of society, not functioning individually, but always in the context of a multitude of interacting individuals, within the organism of society.
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Economics and commerce are the result of an evolution from a subsistence way of life or forced change of possession as in banditry or war to the controlled allocation and exchange of resources. “Economics” became an academic discipline investigating all economic activities, subdivided into microeconomics and macroeconomics. Commerce basically consists of the bartering of unequal objects or services between distinct entities, individuals or groups. Commerce is necessarily connected with logistics for the storage and transportation of goods, whether of agricultural or industrial origin.
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A key element in the evolution of this phenomenon of society was the invention of money. Initially, money was seen as a step in bartering by presenting the underlying amount of a rare or noble material (gold, silver, or copper) as the substance of currency. As this equivalence was removed, currency has no substantive “real value” any longer and has acquired “virtual value”.[15] The value now is largely controlled by a government’s money-printing practices and setting of central interest rates. This brings us to “interest rate”, which results from the abstract “time-value” of a resource, as another phenomenon not applying to individual life (or could it?), but evolving with society.
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In further evolution of the phenomenon of money, we now have the complexity of international currency exchange rates, with their potentially great significance for the prosperity of nations, see the Chinese political manipulation by attempting to keep their currency pegged to the US dollar at an extreme rate favoring their exports and, hence, their employment level and political stability while the USA, consequently, experiences great unemployment problems. In other words, not virtual economic value, but equally “virtual” political considerations become the determining factors in currency value and, consequently, commerce.
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Furthermore, there are the often ancient instruments of toll, import duty, taxation, or subsidies to impact or control commerce – all phenomena nonexistent in a world of individuals or family units and evolved in the course of the appearance of societies.
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Value assessments of alternatives in multidimensional, probabilistic situations are facilitated by the intriguing, abstract economic concept of “utility” (corresponding to value assessment in emotional or ethical situations). [16]
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Commerce is influenced largely by the psychological assessment of the future among the buying public or among industrial organizations. Confidence in the future or apprehension actually impact purchasing selection and, more so, purchasing volume – specifically in the stock market.
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Another important evolution in consequence of commerce is the establishment of contacts with other cultures resulting in idea exchange between different cultures and consequent cultural evolution.
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Commerce led to the spread of religions, first, of Hinduism, then of Islam throughout Indonesia as far as commerce reached – that is, up to the Spice Islands in the Moluccas (Ternate for cloves and the Sundas for nutmeg). It may now assist in the spread of democracy. Commerce benefits from political stability. Consequently, commerce supports stability in society.
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Technology development, initially slow in human evolution, accelerated with the generation of energy from water mills, then steam power and later electricity or atomic energy, leading to mass production of goods in industry, innovations in transportation (railroads, large ships, cars, airplanes), and finally to the world of electricity and electronics for communication and data processing. Not only did a large portion of the population find employment in industry and transportation, but specific organizations formed and began to influence society’s life.
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Education (beyond training in the military or the trades) began as an individualistic, elite pursuit, selectively supported by religious organizations. Evolving societies (after the Enlightenment, French Revolution, and Socialism) brought education to every citizen. Research in technology and the sciences had also been an individualistic, elite pursuit. In the 19th century, educational reform in Germany combined education with research in the universities – soon also implemented in the United States. Special research organizations supported by industry followed. This evolution brought research to the awareness of society, attracted public funding, and accelerated its progress.
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Religious organizations, a typically human consequence of religious movements, led to the building of meeting rooms for religious assemblies, education and devotion – the churches or synagogues. The idea for monasteries probably came from the India of Buddha’s time. Governance of the monasteries and, more so, the maintenance of religious dogma in evolving thought led to religious hierarchies – based on the ancient priestly order of ritual and as typical for human nature. A power struggle within society between religious and political hierarchies was the logical consequence – in some countries still going on, occasionally being a beneficial check on the political power, in other cases much to the disadvantage of the ordinary citizen.
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Military establishments evolved for the protection of communities and for organized warfare for conquest. Territorial skirmishes are as old as most pre-human animals, especially predators. But the organization of structured armies under the command of strategy- and tactics-controlling leaders is typical of human societies.
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What are the driving forces of warfare? Initially in history, tribal territorial friction and territory expansion under the curse of population expansion may have been the driving force – and still is in many parts of the world. Rulers of societies always searched for the expansion of their power base. The securing of borders and creation of buffer areas may have been another reason, as in Chinese colonialism along the whole of its Western frontier and as by Israel on the West Bank. There always were the fights between nomads and farmers, the value builders and the bandits. Then there were the great historic migrations leading to conflict with local populations on the way. They occurred all over the world, on the American continent, the same as in Europe, Asia, or Africa. There also were the religious wars, driven by fanatical zealots – first the Muslims, then the Crusaders. After all, there were also the wars fought for the possession or control of resources – minerals, water, access to harbors for access to resources and commerce. There were wars initiated for defensive reasons – to preempt attacks by others, as demanded by Scipio against Carthage and as claimed against Iraq in our day,
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Organized warfare of large societies had a number of effects:
- Changes in society’s structure
- Acceleration of technological evolution
- Spreading of cultures or absorption of foreign cultures
- Cultural evolution in reaction to conflict
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Ancient Rome and some American-Indian tribes used a different political structure during times of war, using specifically suitable personalities for leadership in war. They subordinated other concerns of society to the needs of war – as if adrenalin had taken over the human brain. Many, if not most, important wars were decided by differences in technology [17], some by superior leadership and strategy or tactics (Alexander the Great and Napoleon, for instance). Technology, advanced for warfare, occasionally had important consequences for society, as the recent advance in electronics demonstrates.
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The building of empires always spread cultures in ancient times, the same as in more modern times. But equally often, the occupied cultures changed the occupiers.[18] Occasionally, cultures changed in reaction to warfare. The Spartans adapted their entire culture to the purpose of military superiority and dominance over the occupied and suppressed Helots. They would have had to be more farming-oriented without that. The dominant British culture changed in reaction to empire-building and colonialism – as did the Japanese prior to World War II. Such cultural change can be intense when the soldiers are a large group of conscripts, not just a small group of professionals.
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Society responds to the typical characteristic of warfare by creating dedicated functions, but also by producing dedicated groups of individuals, often drawn from the nobility in feudal societies or from family tradition.
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Welfare systems for the poor are as old in societies as formal ethical thought, going back to the dawn of human civilization among the Sumerians.[19] Medical systems greatly expanded with the medical knowledge of the Greeks, leading to the establishments of elaborate clinics and spas (see the one established by Galen [129 to 199 AD], in the valley below Pergamon). In Christian times, hospitals were established for sick pilgrims and times of plagues. The French Revolution and subsequent civic reforms brought improved hospitals for the communities. In our time, with the steeply rising cost of ever more advanced medical knowledge and costly equipment, medical insurance evolved as one of the key problems of society’s structure.
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“Literature” as a form of a society’s cultural expression may have begun with the Gilgamesh Epos[20] in Sumeria, supported by the invention of writing at that time in that area. Verbal epic stories of cultural importance must have existed before and also were found in most other cultures, including the Polynesians. As a written document of cultural definition, the Gilgamesh Epos was followed by the Old Testament, Homer’s epic works, the Vedas (about 1,000 BC), and others in other cultures – in more modern times, the works of Shakespeare, Goethe, and other national authors.
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The “media” play a special role in the life, formation of culture, and functioning of modern society – the bestsellers, newspapers, radio, TV, films, and now the internet. Is that merely the role of a “communication” system? Is it, rather, the physical role of a system of sensors and reporting “nerves” to amuse the communal brain? Is it an intellectual control function with which to spot trouble? Is it the attempt to form a second brain, competing with the political function of the government for control of society, as is being blamed on those who control some of the media? Is it just a commercial function reacting to what sells at highest profit? Or is it a strange combination of all the above – similar to what would be a neural system run wild in an individual, but only possible in the evolution of societies?
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Societies can pursue specific directions in their existence, for example, religious ideals (as in the medieval Vatican and in modern Iran), empire-building (as often in history and, lately, in the British Empire), commercial prosperity (as common among modern states), and just freedom for its citizens (as in the historical United States). Subsequent to the Enlightenment and the intellectual approach to human matters, great slogans appeared for the preferable meaning and direction of societies:
- “Life, liberty, and pursuit of happiness” (USA)
- “Liberté, égalité, fraternité” (France)
- “Freedom, democracy and the order of law”
- “Unity and law and freedom” (Germany)
- “Law, order, and good governance” (Canada)
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Nations, as individuals, usually long for what they lack – the poor ones long for some sustenance, the troubled ones for peace, law, and order, and the suppressed ones for freedom. The few lucky ones living in freedom and well-being still see the wide variance in the status of individuals within their own segment of society, the poor and suffering ones in their midst, and the frivolous consumption by some of their wealthy citizens. This leads to balanced “directions” combining several complementary goals (for example, the American “compassionate conservatism” or the German “social market economy”).
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The basic principal of evolution valid in the universe at all times – based on a forward thrust in accordance with always varying starting and border conditions and in accordance with opportunities – may not allow the definition of a single, optimal direction of our or all other societies forever.
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As cultures appear and mature, so can societies evolve. The last few hundred years have seen important changes – for example, the rise of democracy with the disappearance of slavery and the rise of feminism. Both were not predictable in the preceding centuries. Will there be other changes of our societies in the future that we cannot predict now?
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Societies can project characteristics similar to personalities. It is common to describe nations or organizations, whether industrial or charitable, with terms that are used for the description of individual personalities – ruthless, aggressive, fair, idealistic, and more. What establishes these personalities of social entities? Are they stable or variable? In what way? The description of the characteristics of a society on the level of a nation or ethnic group is largely the description of its culture – defined above by the common world view, values (including human rights in politics, civic obligations, and common heroes or role models), type of education, rituals, habits, artistic expression, language, religion, and common history. Consequently, the behavior of a society reflects its culture – and is as stable or variable as that. But many societies are temporarily defined by their lead individuals, establishing their direct responsibility.
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As individuals demonstrate a variety of personality expressions under the impact of situations, societies can do the same – with different expressions in peaceful times of abundance, in stressed times of internal convulsions, or under attack. An extreme form of dual expression is possible – almost schizophrenic – as in present-day Iraq – deeply religious and, at the same time, exceedingly cruel and untrustworthy.
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Commercial organizations are basically unethical, unless specific laws of society or internal rules are used to establish certain “ethical” behavior patterns. There usually is a deep and complex split between the values and behavior in the private matters of individuals employed by such an organization and their behavior when representing the organization – when they feel that they have to act in the interest of the organization as they perceive it. Therefore, ethical rules must be established, possibly by national or international law, and the individuals within the organizations – not just their organizations – should be held legally responsible and financially liable for their actions.
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There are some special developments of societies that should be mentioned, namely exotic sects and mass movements, – sometimes based on the strange neuro-psychological phenomenon of “obsession”, as in mass-hysteria. Some of the human emotions discussed earlier can be inflamed by gifted leaders (or preachers) leading to group formation and total submission of individuals to the group spirit, for example, of religious, ideological, or nationalistic nature [21]. Human history is filled with reports of such small or large movements, some benevolent, others resulting in afflictions of mankind and wildly destructive.
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As in organisms, specialized functions in society imply specialized occupations for some individuals (as for the cells in organisms). Specialization can occur by tradition, inclination, skill, or available means. Such specialization-by-function results in specialized areas of intellectual competence and interest. This is most visible in the specialization of academic branches of research and knowledge, as in, for example, anthropology, sociology, politics, economics, commerce, and warfare. Associated are specialized think tanks, consultants, lobbyists, and public relations professionals. The composition of government “cabinets” – the sum of secretaries or ministers – also corresponds to this differentiation.
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3.2.3 Beyond Societies: Virtual societies? Super-societies? A “Super-Brain”?
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Can there be another step in evolution beyond societies by following the “combinatorial principle”?
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The internet can bring an evolution toward “virtual” societies and subcultures across actual or physical ones, as in another dimension of existence.
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Hierarchies of societies have evolved through the ages: Tribes or their remnants, in the form of provinces, were incorporated in nations and nations in federations (in the USA, the same as in Europe today). Lately, the United Nations are hoped to assume greater importance for the whole world, including military intervention. Globalization is supposed to bring a super-society by way of commerce, requiring “global” rules of commercial behavior and control, for example, by way of the World Trade Organization.
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Societies are similar to organisms. Organisms acquired brains that provided them with exceptional benefits. Will there be an evolution arriving at something like a “super-brain” within and for the benefit of societies? What would it have to look like, or how would it function? A few interesting observations are possible. [22]
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In certain areas on Earth, one can observe the role of one or several (multi-level) minorities providing a degree of coordinating intelligence and control, being societies within themselves. They are comparable to a system of nerves, featuring good communication, loyalties, and shared interests, apparently acting only in their own interest, but their presence and actions mostly resulting in benefit for their respective society.
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Examples could be: The feudal and in-bred elites of Europe’s past. The Indians on South-Pacific islands or the Chinese in South-East Asia providing commerce and striving for education, beneficial governance, and civic law-and-order. Even the much criticized Whites in the colonies, having been small minorities, did bring sophistication in infrastructure, governance, and law and order – now often lacking as they departed. The Jews in Europe or America greatly contributed to the flourishing of “culture”, promoted and implemented social responsibility, and contributed a less self-centered, more world-oriented view of those nations – and also accelerated commerce and industry, thereby both their own and the general well-being.
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Do all those minorities have, maintain, or evolve their own “culture”?
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3.3. “Intelligent Design Theory”; Plan and Meaning Versus Natural Evolution
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3.3.1. The Concept of “Intelligent Design”, the Controversy:
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The very intricate design of some complex organisms – specifically, some of their organic systems consisting of the combination of several functions (see Part 2 of this essay discussing the origin of life, molecular biology, and natural evolution) – has always led to the question of whether a higher, transcendental intelligence, God, is active in their evolution or design. This question arises specifically also in regard to the origin of life and the appearance of the human mind and consciousness. The resulting “religious theory”, known as “ID” (Intelligent Design), stands in opposition to the purely evolutionary, “scientific” understanding of “evolution” and theological concepts of God.
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On the one hand, the science of natural evolution shows the convergence of developments to fill available niches rather quickly and in the most efficient way. For example, all swimming animals, whether fish or the mammals that returned to aquatic life (whales, dolphins, seals) assume similar hydrodynamic shapes and fin-like flippers within a short time of their evolution (called “convergence”). Even the origins of the most intricate phenomena of evolution – the origin of life and of the human mind – are increasingly explained by natural, scientifically provable sequences in evolution.
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On the other hand, the exceptional complexity of some designs – and, mainly, the limited time within which these designs evolved – make it possible for the proponents of Intelligent Design (often abbreviated as “ID” in the literature) to doubt their evolutionary origin merely by randomly, and rarely, occurring changes in the genome. This leads to their postulating a contributing divine intelligence.
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For example, it is difficult to see how the appearance of the first feathers on the skin of some dinosaurs could have led to substantial survival or breeding benefits – leading subsequently to the capability for flight. In another example, the human brain developed within the last 2 million years or so, corresponding to about 100 to 200 thousand generations in evolution. Can the enormous complexity of the human brain have developed step by step through random variations and the selection of the fittest during such a short time? Many other examples of surprising complexity in nature (as simple as the spider’s ability to produce its webs and as complex as the design of the ear and eye and, specifically, the operation of the human mind) could be mentioned, all leading to the same question of “Intelligent Design” versus natural evolution.
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Another argument by the proponents of Intelligent Design is provided by the fact that science has never succeeded in synthetically creating a self-replicating molecule and that human consciousness still seems to elude the understanding by many thinkers, whether scientists or philosophers.
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The “Intelligent Design” concept remains as a major issue in the on-going “Science and Religion” discourse, often as a controversy. In essence, science owes an answer to the question how the rapid evolution of very complex biological systems can be explained. But, also, theology has to look at the consequences of the Intelligent Design concept.
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3.3.2. The Response of Science to “Intelligent Design”
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Presently, there are two answers of science to Intelligent Design, a rather defensive one and the beginning of a stronger, scientific explanation.
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The defensive answer states that not all gaps in scientific understanding should be quickly and simplistically filled by statements about “divine interference” or “intelligent design”. History shows that religious theories concerning the natural world collapse as science progresses and, sooner or later, provides explanations. A readily available Intelligent Design answer to open scientific problems would preempt all scientific effort and would bring all further scientific research to an end. Take, for example, the struggle against newly appearing complex diseases. Science is built on the confidence of a world adhering to the laws of nature – actually, another form of confidence in God – allowing further growth in knowledge and the eventual resolution of remaining scientific questions.
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The beginning of a scientific explanation of rapid genetic evolution sees a variety of factors contributing to rapid changes in evolution:
- The multiplicity of appearances of the same gene within the genome
- Gene splicing and gene combinations – leading to a very large increase in gene expression options without changes in the actual genes
- Gene conscription – the use of a gene in an area unrelated to its general area of expression – see the recent findings about the evolution of snake poisons
- Reduced error correction in DNA replication in certain limited areas of rapid gene evolution – resulting in a larger number of mutations within a shorter time
- The often large variation in size of organic elements (size of limbs, number of seeds, etc.) – a question of tissue growth and of growth inhibition – as used in animal and plant breeding
- The origin of new genes
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3.3.3. Theological Concerns with “Intelligent Design Theory”.
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A number of religious or theological concerns should be stated in opposition to the Intelligent Design theory or belief, which postulates ongoing, divine intelligent design interference:
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- The cruelty of some designs would lead to a correspondingly cruel image of a “designing” God. For example, worms in the drinking water of some African tribes evolved to live in human eyes, rendering those innocent, poor people blind. The polio virus has led to the crippling or death of millions of children. The present-day HIV virus devastates not only the “guilty” ones (drug users, sex abusers), but leads to the suffering of many innocents. The weakness in gene design and gene expression leads to a certain number of birth defects of body or mind, with consequent severe suffering of children and their parents. The list of cruel “designs” is long.
- There is an unfair distribution of predatory advantages and prey defenses. It is often the stupidity or the disadvantageous design of prey animals that allows predators to kill them, preferentially their calves. Minor redesigns of the prey animals could correct that – if there were fairness in design.
- There is a surprising lack of “obvious” design advantages in some areas – for example, metallic conductivity in nerves, capability of digesting cellulose or wood in mammals, and resistance against virus infections.
- There often occurs senseless destruction in consequence of new designs – for example, new plagues, bacteria, or viruses destroying recently “designed” higher organisms.
- If divine interference by intelligent design is assumed, how about the historic consequences of such design events? Would that not constitute interference with history or constitute the divine guidance of history (e.g., the plague that afflicted Athens and killed Perikles) – consequently, the assumption of “Intelligent History”?
- This would lead to the observation of unfairness in history.
- The assumption of “intelligent design” or “intelligent history” should lead to the concept of a God willing to interfere when being appealed to in justifiable situations by the morally “good”.
- Observation does not show a pattern of divine response to appeal or of fair compensation.
- A key Christian question for the Intelligent Design theory: Why were humans created “sinful”?
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3.3.4. Some Philosophical Conclusions
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An acceptance of divine interference in natural design would lead to a questioning of human counteraction against such designs, e.g. a questioning of medical research and medical care – a totally unacceptable position in our modern world or when confronted with suffering, mostly of the innocent.
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An assumption of “intelligent design” and “intelligent history” could even lead to a questioning of “free will” and, consequently, personal responsibility.
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The question of “Intelligent Design” is connected with the question of a divine plan in evolution and, consequently, a meaning of evolution and existence.
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Are the steps of evolution generally plan- or goal-attracted, or are they forward-driven by starting conditions, probability distributions, and random events, though within the limits of the laws of nature and the given opportunities – consequently, converging on the most efficient filling of niches for prospering – still leaving a wide variety of possible implementations – as the multitude of different flowers, birds, or fish indicates?
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Those niches result from the astrophysical evolution of the universe based on the laws and constants of nature. Consequently, the appearance of the niches is a result of the given structure of the universe, possibly founded on a transcendental spiritual essence, the “Creator”. In this sense, this Creator preconditioned the universe for the appearance of life in all its forms of evolution. This may occur through the process of attaining higher complexity in the course of time to the extent that the genome of some few species grows and their protein processes become more complex
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On the other hand, one should realize that it is inevitable that catastrophic extinctions will occur again, as they have occurred before. All the stars will ultimately fade, and the universe will find its end – in a big collapse, in some Black Holes, or in forever expanding and cooling radiation. If the latter is the case, there is no other meaning to existence but to be there, for the time being – for “the pleasure of God”, the original “Creator” and initiator of the evolution of existence. This still leaves direction and meaning for individual human lives in the fulfillment of personal potential and pursuit of general values – in growth, in service, and in appreciation of beauty – for the very limited duration of our presence in this existence. Instead of passively accepting the world as inscrutable and destiny as preordained, we must assume responsibility to understand and improve the world as best we can.
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3.4. Extraterrestrial Life and Intelligence, “Cosmo-Psychology”, Consequences?
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3.4.1. What Is Life and Intelligence? Intelligent Life on Other Celestial Bodies?
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A living molecule can be defined as one that multiplies (in basically similar configuration), uses resources from its environment (energy and chemicals), and evolves or adapts to its changing environment. It is somewhat arbitrary to require “life” to include metabolism (internal chemical processes), growth (“directed development”), and the content of special “hereditary information” beyond just being what it is [23].
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When talking about extraterrestrial life, the field of “astrobiology”, it is commonly assumed that such life must also be based on organic compounds utilizing carbon, since only carbon permits the formation of such a variety of molecules and the formation of such complex molecular structures or materials. Silicon is a distant second-best. Water must be available as the most common solvent for the transportation of chemical compounds. Methane is a distant second-best to water. Such assumptions ultimately lead to concepts of life not too different from ours on Earth.
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Let’s try an experiment in thought of a different form of life. Let us assume that some distant star has a planet like Jupiter, also with a large singular spot. Let us assume that this spot is a vent throwing vapor high into its atmosphere, whatever the vapor consists of. Let us also assume that the vapor condenses into flakes, much like our snowflakes on Earth. The cumulus cloud of that vapor above the vent may be such that a large quantity of the flakes, when falling down, are sucked back into the rising vapor stream and go on being re-cycled, through many cycles. When they become large enough, the flakes break up and each particle becomes the nucleus of a new flake. The flakes “propagate” and use the resources of their environment.
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The vapor from the vent contains small amounts of exotic material. This can lead to special formations or deformations along the branches of the flakes. Flakes with certain of those special formations are more apt to absorb vapor for their growth, thereby depriving others of this supply. Soon, such special flakes outnumber and, finally, replace the other flakes. As newer special formations appear through chance events, a certain evolution takes place.
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The margins of the cumulus cloud can present different environments and can lead to adapted evolutions [24]. For example, the lower sides of the cloud may present “dryer” areas where only certain flakes prevail. The higher areas may present “colder” areas of thinner vapor, where other flakes prevail. This would be a form of adaptive evolution.
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Do the flakes in the cloud present a special form of “life”?
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Can an advanced robot containing a super-computer ever be considered to be living? What if consciousness, decision-making, creativity, and some “personality” – see the discussions in the various essays in the section “Brain, Mind” on the website www.schwab-writings.com – should, to some degree, all be reproducible in an advanced computer of the future?
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Can a virtual being ever be considered living? A virtual being shall be defined as a software-simulated being – having only a virtual existence within the electromagnetic realities of a local or global data processing system. As discussed in Part 1 of this essay, about cosmogony, electromagnetic fields are rather abstract phenomena in empty space. As indicated in that part of the essay, all phenomena of existence are, ultimately, only expressions of fields. Are all phenomena of existence only virtual?
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Thinking in more realistic terms, advanced extraterrestrial life should be expected to use carbon compounds for its materials. As discussed in Part 2 of this essay, regarding the origin of life, the precursor “organic” molecules and building blocks of RNA most likely arrived on Earth aboard icy comets or meteorites. Consequently, they are expected to be available throughout the universe. This lets the appearance of life similar to ours on other celestial bodies appear quite likely. The evolution of such life may have started billions of years before ours and, consequently, may have led much further than our evolution on Earth – and may have gone in different directions. In cosmic terms, we may just be a unique side-branch of cosmic evolution – fascinatingly interesting as we are.
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Furthermore, if such life is “advanced” – and, consequently, derived from evolution – such life would need some blueprints of its structure upon multiplication, whether cell-by-cell or in toto. Carbon-compound chains are quite suitable for use as complex memory – unless nature can develop some two- or three-dimensional memory molecules, thereby accomplishing even more than our one-dimensional DNA helix. The evolution of such basic “blueprint” molecules over time, in evolution toward higher complexity of the derived organism, can move in many different directions – as evidenced by the myriad species that evolved on Earth through the ages. This would indicate an absolutely unpredictable diversification of evolution on other suitable places in the universe.
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But, after all, to prosper, evolution must follow opportunities. Consequently, evolution cannot diverge arbitrarily. Evolution must “converge” on organisms that can prosper within the given niches of the environment.
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As discussed in essay #2 on the evolution of life, the converging of evolution on organisms that have sensors and can move and that, consequently, have actuators and some control function between the sensors and actuators is indicated only in case of predatory behavior – on Earth prompted by the oxygen-based energy cycle already mentioned. This leads to organisms that contain systems for sensory signal communication, signal processing or control, and motion control of actuators, corresponding to our nervous system that began to develop with the most primitive animals. Advanced control centers can be compared to “brains” and the control process to “thought”. In other words, certain energy cycles lead to predatory behavior and, therefore, to evolution toward brains, rudimentary as these may be.
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But are “emotions” required – or more?
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Nervous systems appeared several hundred million years ago, providing motoric reflexive as well as “emotional” control (for example, in “fight or flight” reactions). But higher forms of brains appeared only recently, 500 million years after the beginning of animal evolution. Why did none develop earlier during the past hundreds of million years? Why did the “convergence” on this level of natural existence not occur earlier, and in other species? [25]
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It is possible that the development of larger brains occurs only after the evolutionary transition through some narrow passages that we do not understand yet – then leading to the expansion into evolutionary niches based on higher intelligence.
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Regarding those “narrow passages” toward the development of complex brains and intelligence, some scientists think that it is the development of language (based on some physiological changes facilitating the production of language) that is needed for the development of higher intelligence.
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Others see the need for three-dimensional vision (requiring front-viewing eyes). This is needed for the development and usage of tools – and the development of freely usable, skill-supporting frontal limbs (arms and hands). Such frontal limbs were not available to dinosaurs and are not available to other animals with large brains (elephants, whales).
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Once such a certain narrow passage in evolution is breached, brain development may occur swiftly, having then taken only 2 million years from higher animals to humans.
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Is this passage likely to occur in extraterrestrial life? If one subtracts the long period of mammal suppression during the dominance of the dinosaurs, the development to brains can possibly be seen in a much shorter time than 500 million years. On Earth it required less than 65 million years – and the development of large brains only 2 million years from there – a very short time interval in cosmic terms.
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Can one expect intelligent life on other celestial bodies? How likely or unlikely is intelligent life on other celestial bodies, “extraterrestrial intelligence”? Peter Ward and Donald Brownlee discuss this subject in their book [26]. They present convincing arguments that primitive life may exist in many places in the universe, specifically since extremophile bacteria have been found to prosper in great heat at deep sea volcanic vents or deep in rocks, as well as under the permanent ice and snow of Antarctica. Life with higher intelligence, however, would possibly exist nowhere else but on Earth, they argue, since intelligent life takes too much time to evolve. Instabilities or the repetitive “catastrophes” (see the discussion in Part 1 and Part 2 of this essay regarding the evolution of Earth and life on Earth) do not allow this to happen [27].
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This assessment appears somewhat subjective and, possibly, emotionally pessimistic. The resilience of life and evolution on Earth through numerous catastrophes, as discussed in other essays, seems to indicate that the evolution of life, once begun somewhere, is rather persistent.
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Furthermore, evolution’s progress being as uneven as demonstrated, may not need as much time to arrive at higher intelligence as it did on Earth. Fortuitous combinations of genetic change and environmental change may bring intelligence much faster than on Earth. Peter Ulmschneider, in his Intelligent Life in the Universe [28], provides an in-depth analysis of the search for extraterrestrial intelligent life and the likelihood of finding any. He arrives at the expectation that extraterrestrial intelligence should be quite common in the universe (about 4,000 such colonies now existing, he believes, in our galaxy alone).
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3.4.2. The Minds of Extraterrestrial Intelligent Beings, “Cosmo-Psychology”
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If there are other intelligent beings in the universe, what can one say about their possible mental characteristics? They, too, must have undergone evolution, not having arrived in the possession of higher capabilities from their beginning on. Any evolution is caused by random or probabilistic events that change the inheritance of characteristics with subsequent selection of the most suitable or fittest.
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Most writers assume that other intelligent beings in the universe should be quite different from us on Earth. Regarding extraterrestrial intelligence, however, one can say that, in order to accomplish anything of importance, any other intelligent beings in the universe must also live in some form of cooperation with many individuals, even in what we might call civilizations. Furthermore, some evolution is necessary for a civilization to arrive at a higher level of technological accomplishment that we could perceive from Earth.
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Evolution implies concepts such as stronger/weaker or correct/incorrect; it also presupposes some competition or fight to allow the more successful one to prevail.
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The mental composition of other beings in space does not necessarily have to include emotions (see the successful societies of insects). For all social animals and humans on Earth, the caring for offspring and clan-members, the forming of friendship bonds in reciprocity of services, and the providing of personal sacrifices (as in defense) for the benefit of the community constitute the foundation of “emotions” and ethics. Are some extraterrestrial civilizations nothing but emotionless, utilitarian insects? Coherence in extraterrestrial civilization may be merely, and solely, utilitarian.
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On the other hand, the mental composition of extraterrestrial civilizations may possibly include not fewer dimensions than ours, comprising reason and emotions, but additional ones, as unknown to humans – consequently, not imaginable by us – as any beings without emotions could not imagine our emotions.
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The following paragraphs present a more systematic approach to predicting the origin, evolution, and function of the minds of extraterrestrial intelligent beings, this effort to be called “cosmo-psychology”:
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Evolution toward higher complexity in this world usually follows the “Combinatorial Principle”: Initially, the basic phenomena of existence in our world are granular, being composed of some small components which are available in a certain diversity of types (categories). These small components are capable of being combined to form hierarchically larger components, which then offer new dimensions of existence (sometimes called the phenomenon of “emergence”). This principle of granulation in categorical diversity and subsequent hierarchical composition into larger structures can be found in particle physics, biochemistry, biology (ultimately leading to large, complex organisms), and in human mental development (see the Part 3 of this essay about the “Origin, Evolution, and Function of the Human Mind”).
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As in the case of the human mind, one can expect that the minds of extraterrestrial intelligent beings began their evolution with small elements – for example, by means of the first few elements of useful memory appearing in the above-indicated “control” function (between sensors and actuators) of simple predecessor organisms in the course of their evolution – or by the first elements of communication (for us, sounds or the simplest of words) which they could formulate. Some such elements will be mentioned later. Let us give these simple elements of the nascent “mind” a name – calling them by a Greek term “noöns” (derived from “noös”), or by en English term “spiritons” (corresponding to the term “Begriffe” in German). It is postulated that, in the course of the mental evolution of extraterrestrial beings, the simple spiritons were combined into macro-spiritons (of hierarchical higher complexity and wider coverage) and those into mega-spiritons.
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The following spiritons can be expected in the minds of extraterrestrial intelligent beings:
- Descriptive terms: terms for detailed geometric features of the terrain they live in, of circular or conical form. Their own bodily shapes and forms may result in terms for dots, lines, triangles, quadrangles, pyramids, and cubes. If we ever receive signals from them, the extraterrestrials must be able to perceive electromagnetic frequencies and may have terms for certain bands of frequencies (“colors” in our terms) – unless they will signal us by gravity waves!
- Basic numeric terms: one, two, three …. and so on.
- The terms of mental “logic”: “and”, “or”, “not”, and “equal” – as used not only in philosophical logic, but also in the “gates” of all control mechanisms – and terms for “right” (correct) and “wrong” (incorrect).
- Basic terms to express “time” – as derived from any cyclic events in their existence, for example, the rotation of their planet or any radiation frequency (e.g., common absorption lines in universal spectra).
- Basic terms related to their social structure: individual, functions of individuals.
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The following macro-spiritons can be expected:
- Simple combinations of descriptive terms: Combinations of figures – e.g., the totality of their bodies.
- Simple mathematical functions: plus, minus, multiply, divide – a term for prime numbers – terms indicating “all” or “none” or partial quantities (e.g., “half”).
- More complex control and communication components or functions (antennas, amplifiers, arithmetic units, and more).
- Larger units of time.
- More advanced terms related to their social structure: Leaders, followers, larger functions (resource providers, waste removal, law givers, law enforcers, warriors, engineers?) – terms for adding/gaining/hiring or deleting/firing/dismissing/losing.
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The following mega-spiritons can be expected:
- Cosmic configurations (galaxies and their spiral arms), clusters, comets.
- Mathematical operands: integrals, differentials, Laplace transforms, and more.
- Control centers (“computers” in our terms).
- Complex timing schemes, terms for sequences, “before” and “later”, history, the concept of “evolution”, and concepts of motion.
- Advanced social and cultural terms: Constitution, economic systems.
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There must be rules for the combination of spiritons to form macro-spiritons and mega-spiritons (the grammar) and the corresponding terms would be of special interest, especially when going beyond logic or mathematical terms. These terms would express their thought processes – e.g., terms for logic, invention, intuition.
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In the human brain and mind, creativity and mental progress is provided through a combinatorial process involving existing memory elements, new perceptions, and their interconnectivity, see the two essay on “Creativity” in the “Brain, Mind” section of the website www.schwab-writings. While this interconnectivity is multidimensional, the human mind is tied to a linear progression of thought – somewhat like the search results of Google being provided in a linear sequence. It is not – as one may wish – that the human mind looks down on all the elements of knowledge and perception spread out before it like a tinker-toy set and then chooses the most suitable piece to progress the building. Would it be possible that an extraterrestrial mind would have a better approach to creativity, a two-dimensional search capability or better, could look down on all the pieces of the puzzle in parallel? Would that require that their speech is better than linear, not like ours is? Is that the problem why we have not been successful with the SETI-project, because we should be able to look in parallel at more than one string of signals arriving in a linear mode?
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As indicated before, terms for some “religious” concepts can be expected and would be of special interest: “creation” of the universe, “revelation”, “meaning, purpose, direction” of evolution. But terms for emotions – or for completely different mental dimensions – may or may not be found among extraterrestrials.
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The next step would be the development of an understanding for behavior. Here, the basic controlling assumptions would be:
- Diversity of individuals within their societies (as necessary for evolution), terms for “equal” and “different”.
- Hierarchical ranking of individuals (as necessary in forming societies), terms for “dominate” and “subordinate”.
- Competitiveness (as a foundation of evolution), even “fighting”.
- Terms for “generate” and “destroy”, “birth” or “death”.
- Assessment of correct or incorrect regarding the results of their thoughts or actions.
- Assessment of beneficial or damaging of the results of their behavior, terms for “useful” and “useless”.
- Gradual assessments of “better” or “worse”, “superior” or “inferior”.
- Dynamics of behavior.
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It would be an interesting experiment to construct a “cosmic” language (using arbitrary symbols) and attempt to conduct a dialog based on the above-assumed spiritons, the likely rules for their combination, and expected forms of behavior. What could we, and what could we not, communicate or understand if communicated to us?
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3.4.3. Possible Consequences for Us on Earth?
Resulting Fundamental Philosophical and Theological Questions?:
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Astronomic distances and the limiting speed of light will make any two-way conversation with extraterrestrial civilizations nearly impossible. But one-way communication may be received from them. The consequences of receiving information about, or from, extraterrestrial intelligence could include the sciences, technology, medicine, philosophy, and theology – even art.
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New scientific knowledge may be related to the ultimate questions of cosmogony, cosmology, the “great unified theory”, and the origin of life, possibly with consequences in energy production and genetics.
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Technology information may be helpful, or it may create serious problems. For example, if a method were communicated to produce abundant amounts of food in a very large “factory” at very low cost, the problems of hunger in the world might be solved, but all agriculture and, thereby, the sustenance of still a very large part of the human population would be socially and economically disrupted. The same could be said about the possible replacement of lumber, coal, or oil by other materials or merely about processes that became available through “celestial” communication.
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Superior medical knowledge, as welcome as it would be for all the suffering, would also increase the growth and aging of Earth’s population – with not only economic and social, but also environmental consequences. Could we permit ongoing procreation on Earth if there were no more death?
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Are there any philosophical or theological expectations or consequences connected with the possible discovery of extraterrestrial intelligence?
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On account of the very slow speed (in cosmic dimensions) of light or any other signal transmission – requiring already more than four years just to reach or arrive from our closest neighbor among the stars and millions of years to reach other galaxies – it is unlikely that we can obtain the information we seek or ask for concerning specific answers from other civilizations in outer space within the foreseeable future. Possible philosophical and very important theological consequences result, however, solely from the fact that other civilizations exist in outer space and from our knowledge of astrophysics, see the essay “Theology, Astrophysics, and the SETI Project” in the “philosophy-theology” section on the author’s website www.schwab-writings.com.
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A deeper understanding, as possibly available to other intelligent beings in the universe, of the dynamics of the universe and our existence could help in answering the most fundamental question of our time – of our mental evolution so far – regarding a transcendental structure of the universe. They concern the clarification of the theological questions regarding the following concerns:
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- Creation: Is there a transcendental origin of existence, “God”?
- Is there ongoing action of the creating force in the universe, the “acting God”? This is also the question of “Intelligent Design” in evolution and of divine interference with the course of history.
- Is there any response of the creating force to supplication? Is there a “personal, merciful God”?
- What is the foundation of moral codes? Will there be a last judgment or compensation by the creating force, the “judging God”? This is the question of a compensating afterlife.
- The explanation of all the suffering, misery, destructiveness, and waste in this world.
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Would answers to these questions represent the end of an era of thought and faith? It is mainly the abandoning of a faith in a last judgment with a subsequent compensating afterlife that would bring a fundamental change in the human perception of life!
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Will there be structural changes of society with the demise of the churches and theological-hierarchical structures?
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Will there be changes in the perceived “meaning” of life when no afterlife can be expected?
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What will be the remaining ethical guidelines? Will the loss of religion lead to nihilism and materialism – or to something else? But certainly more will remain than materialism and selfishness! The ongoing force of genetically given ethical emotions and behavior (for the human as a social being) and practical interest (in the family, at work, in society, business, and politics) will prevail! New congregational life will occur with that.
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There will always be the need to fulfill our basic requirements of life – food, shelter, procreation, minimal social contact, even some aesthetic decorations. There may always be the somewhat dubious middle level of accomplishment in wealth, public recognition, power, and entertainment. But beyond that, the significant goals/directions will be found in mental growth (personal development, as it is the goal for all other beings in nature), dedicated service (to family, clan, others, the needy and lonely, society, and the environment), and joyful artistic expression (in aesthetics, art, and culture)!
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The consequence of the theological question may very well be seen as a second “being driven out of Paradise”, this time for good – toward increased self-reliance and self-responsibility of mankind for the conditions here on Earth.
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3.5. The Future
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3.5.1. Mankind’s Future?
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Predictions of the future, whether for the next few years or long-term, can be found in three categories:
- More or less of the same as we have seen so far, with all the ups and downs through history, but not leading to any extremes neither in the positive nor in the negative direction for the whole of mankind – but certainly for those concerned in some regions
- Pessimistic predictions of great dangers, often of the doomsday variety for all of mankind
- Optimistic predictions, extensions of science and technology trends, often leading to science fiction forecasting ideal conditions on Earth.
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More of the same:
The history of civilizations over the past few thousand years, whether in urban or rural life, appears as a sequence of waves, with positive and negative periods alternating – even though not always in the same regions. Devastations and plagues in some regions were followed by new high cultures in different regions.
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This implies that mankind, as a whole, is resilient and can survive catastrophes, subsequently developing new strength for further progress. It also implies that new devastations and plagues do occur again and again, leading to great instability and the demise of existing high cultures – only to see new cultures appear eventually – based on the inherent resilience and strength of mankind.
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Pessimistic predictions:
Doomsday predictions have a long history. About 2,000 years ago, apocalyptic visions were rather common. Great religions appeared and expanded based principally on arguments for the salvation of the souls in another, better world to come or offering a Nirvana upon resignation from this world of endless suffering.
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A few hundred years ago, the dangers of comets or meteors were widely propagated.
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But the worst modern catastrophes to subsequently arrive, the World Wars and the ideological persecutions under dictatorial regimes in many places, had not been predicted.
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What can be said from today’s point of view?
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Earth’s population is close to 6 billion, with an increasing portion of that number in the major cities of underdeveloped countries. This population can be supported only as long as the production and distribution of energy, food, textiles, building products, industrial products, and medications function at low prices and as long as climate does not change excessively. In other words, such a very large global society is fragile. Following are some specific comments:
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New diseases will certainly appear. They will be more devastating as more people live closely together in big cities. Resurgence of old diseases (e.g., resistant strains of tuberculosis and malaria) and the appearance of new diseases (e.g., HIV/AIDS, SARS) occur at a surprising rate. As long as research in the advanced Western countries functions well, these threats can be countered. But if political or social unrest – lately, one must add to it religious unrest from Muslim radicalism – reduces the Western potential, these diseases can become major threats.
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A moment of imbalance can occur when destabilizing forces lead to a weakening of the pharmaceutical industry. Further international destabilization could occur upon the arrival of the next major disease in a downward spiral. This can result in the death of billions of people in a very short time and the destruction of all political order and higher civilization. Pockets of remaining civilization may find themselves at the level of about 500 BC or lower.
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One must also think of diseases attacking animals or plants – with possibly the same devastating consequences. Science fiction can also think of microbes invading and destroying the world’s oil supplies.
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Environmental changes, possibly including a warming of the climate, appear as great dangers. Warming would lead to three consequences; sea levels around the world would go up and inundate fertile areas. The suitability of land for agriculture would move to different areas, for example, farther north on the Northern Hemisphere, leaving deserts behind where fertile areas had been before. Another effect could be a change in ocean currents with catastrophic consequences (for example, frequent and intense El Niños or the stopping of the Gulf Stream). With fairly settled populations and rigid national borders preventing mass migrations, any one of these effects would create disastrous political problems. If the world order collapses, the previously indicated consequences for civilization must be expected.
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Natural disasters may occur once more, like the great catastrophes of millions of years ago, causing new “extinctions”. The greatest natural disasters in our time causing some locally restricted extinctions were gigantic volcanic eruptions (for example, Thera in the Mediterranean and Krakatau in Indonesia). New eruptions of large basaltic “traps” from deep within Earth, as they occurred historically in India and in Siberia, or major meteorites may bring the most destructive extinctions, including the extinction of mankind.
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Man-made disasters and extinctions have occurred and will occur again. Religious, political, or criminal movements or organization may lead to great catastrophes, as the recent “Jihads” and the “war on terrorism” indicate. Specifically, the possible availability of weapons of mass destruction can bring the risk that world order may get out of control. Locally released germs may devastate sufficiently large portions of mankind in critical areas to lead to the above described loss of balance in society, leading to a total breakdown in energy, food, pharmaceutical, and industrial production and product distribution.
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There may be slower risks for mankind, as from over-breeding or down-breeding. Over-breeding can lead to social destabilization, first in some countries only, ultimately internationally. Down-breeding can, theoretically, occur in human mental capability – the lowest performers having the most children, the highest performers the fewest – with consequences for social balance. The greatest danger may result from medical down-breeding. Life’s struggle in modern society is no longer related to medical conditions. Social standards make it desirable and civil rights make it mandatory that the medically “challenged” be given equal opportunity and equal right to propagate. Natural evolution indicates that, in the long run, only evolving adaptation to changing environmental conditions ascertains survival. Will environmental conditions for mankind not evolve? Initially, this would merely result in an increase in society’s medical costs. Ultimately, social destabilization could occur. But at our present level of science, we expect genetic engineering to take care of most of these problems.
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On the other hand, it takes only a small percentage of the population to provide the key functions – intellectually or in leadership.
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The most advanced civilizations are also the most fragile ones. The well-being of the world – a population of 6 billion and growing – depends largely upon the functioning of our advanced civilizations.
When any of the above-indicated major social upheavals occur, though, the breakdown would most likely lead to political, ideological, or religious dictatorships. Dictators are known to take care of their core group and not of the population at large. Dictators spend money on internal security and on weapons for either empire-building or military defense. Such societies will not be able to cope with major new diseases, major environmental changes, or natural catastrophes.
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Intellectually, there may be a standstill or regression in religious or fundamentalist-political perceptions, as observed by some people in our time. Established hierarchies may not be able to cope with modern situations any longer (for example, the prohibition of AIDS-preventing condoms by the catholic church or inhibition of stem-cell research by some political parties).
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In more general terms, mankind proceeds on a precarious course through history, hemmed in on all sides by the dangers and risks of extremes:
- Too much control by religious, ideological, or political forces – as by fundamentalist religious leaders or sects, ideologically excited mass movements, or dictators with their mind control and secret police forces.
- Too little restraint through loss of all values and direction – leading to general decay, not only in moral terms and law-and-order, but also in loss of governance and corruption of public finances.
- Too much progress, in science or technology and in society’s structure or loss of structure (globalization) – leading to large unemployment, need for migration, and loss of “culture” or mental stability.
- Too little progress, whether in terms of science and technology or national and international structure – not allowing the resolution of social problems in many nations and large sections of the world, and not allowing the absorption of an increasing population of the world in decent living conditions, mainly in the ever growing, very large cities.
In Toynbee’s interpretation of the course of history, the above risks constitute the challenges for the world elites – in politics, the media, and the all-influencing business world. In a more democratic view, not only in blessed countries like Switzerland, the above risks constitute challenges for all and every citizen.
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Optimistic predictions:
When automation appeared in the factories, predictions appeared showing men to be freed from all work in the future. When the first electrical household appliances became available a hundred years or so ago, predictions appeared showing women to be freed from all household chores in the future.
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During the acceleration of technological progress in the 1960s, some newspapers had the habit of bringing year-end editions with exciting predictions for the future. Few were ever correct. For example, helicopters were predicted to replace cars and space travel appeared as imminent.
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Recent predictions refer to the progress in genetic manipulation, foreseeing the end of all diseases. In the more distant future, new kinds of “human” beings with higher mental capabilities and greater beauty are predicted – hopefully also with higher morality.
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Pseudo-genetic processes are being used for increasingly automated scientific research. Experimental approaches are used as if all the experimental variables were genes. They are then more or less randomly varied. Improved results lead to further pursuits along the successful line. Unsuccessful lines are being abandoned.
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What can be said from today’s point of view?
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Predictions usually follow one or another of the most recent developments in a linear extension far into the future. This is never possible. Such specific developments would get out of balance with the reality of the world. For example, society will do whatever it can to keep men and women working, if not for gain, then as volunteers in some worthy cause. Environmentalism would like to reduce individual vehicle use – not only cars, but, more specifically, helicopters. Space travel should be replaced by space probes with robots. Environmental concerns and bioethics turn against gene manipulation.
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But the most important scientific or technical innovations were those never predicted – for example, genetics, the computer, and the internet revolution. We just cannot foresee what we never experienced before.
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Developments do not follow a straight line where systems become fragile. The next developments appear in unforeseen areas. There will be progress, but more moderate than optimistically predicted and in directions we cannot foresee. “Growth” may not be in “more”, specifically not in more material consumption. The “growth” of mankind from ancient times through the Middle Ages was primarily not in numbers of people or consumption, but in mental or cultural growth – after substantial set-backs lasting for centuries and new starts in different directions.
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And in the far future?
Homo sapiens occurred only a “short” time ago. Can super-humans appear in the future? Possibly not so easily – since there are no islands of evolution left for separate development – and since propagation no longer goes with the “fittest”, in the sense of the most advanced.
But what can genetic engineering accomplish in the future? How little did we predict technical progress in other areas in the past – in manufacturing, transportation, medicine, communication, or data processing. Who knows how little genetic adjustment it will possibly take to substantially improve certain human performance parameters? The genetic difference between humans and other primates is very small. Evolution of humans may move from natural evolution to genetic engineering.
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What may not be dangers for the future but often is seen as such?
The most common pessimistic prediction about mankind’s future concerns moral and political decay, with consequent catastrophes for society.
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On the other hand, moral laws and the resulting laws and regulations of society ultimately correspond to, and are anchored in, mankind’s natural needs – protection against violence, protection of personal property, protection of children and the weak, support in distress, some “dignity”, availability of opportunities, and some civil rights.
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The vision of progress during the time of “enlightenment” found its balance in the denial of progress in “back-to-nature” movements of Jean-Jacques Rousseau and the Romantics. The emphasis on intellect with drift in morality found its balance in mystical ideas with emphasis on ethics, such as the Rosicrucians and subsequent Free Masons.
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Whenever things get out-of-hand due to political or religious imbalances, they will swing back to cover human needs. This will prevent moral or political decay going too far or lasting too long – as long as resources are available – see the other dangers coming from diseases, overpopulation, or climate change – all possibly resulting in catastrophic political and then also moral developments.
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The other most cited danger for mankind’s future is the running out of resources – of sources for energy, water, certain metals, and more. While this danger is real in the short term, adaptations are more likely and possible than generally presented. The total influx of energy to Earth from the Sun far exceeds mankind’s energy need for the very distant future. Atomic energy, after all, is an equally “un-exhaustible” energy source – and energy conservation, if not conversion, is always a goal. Scarce minerals can largely be substituted, albeit at somewhat higher energy need or cost.
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In sum, when things go to well, indiscriminate waste of resources and the abuse of power reduce progress. But when the downtrend reaches the level of a disaster, the resilience of human nature and the onset of corrective forces will bring things back to a bearable level – this can be observed in the political as well as the economic world.
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What else could come in the very distant future?
The reversal of the Earth’s magnetic field may bring high levels of radiation for a limited time – resulting in extensive damage to plants, animals, and humans – and the acceleration of evolution. The extinction of the magnetic field due to solidification of the core (crystallization) upon cooling (within billions of years) could bring permanent high levels of radiation. The next passage of Earth through one of the spiral arms of our galaxy (just beginning now) may bring high levels of radiation and higher probabilities of meteor encounters. Ultimately, the Sun will first overheat, then lose most of its energy, letting Earth first be scorched, then freeze over permanently.
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3.5.2. How Does the Future of the Universe Look? How Will It All End?
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Astrophysics has arrived at a certain understanding of the dynamics of the universe. For example, within a certain time, one must expect the extinction of all the stars in the universe as their atomic fuel is consumed.
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At some time, there will be no further formation of new galaxies or stars, as all the dust is used up in the universe. It is not absolutely clear how much gas and dust is left at this time – in our Sun’s neighborhood, in the Milky Way, and in the universe.
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In one scenario of astrophysics, all galaxies will ultimately collapse into their centers – into “Black Holes”. Furthermore, over very long periods of time, many black holes may collapse into a few gigantic black holes.
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All Black Holes will ultimately dissipate into radiation – based on quantum effects over long periods of time (Hawking’s theory). In the end, only radiation will be left that dissipates into ever more distant space and, thereby, cools to close to “Absolute Zero” (about minus 500 degrees) in absolute darkness.
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In an alternative scenario, the “repulsive” energy of space, that presently accelerates the dispersion of all galaxies in space, may possibly be reversed, leading to renewed attraction and, consequently, a future collapse, the “Big Crunch”, of the whole universe, a reversal of the “Big Bang”. [29]
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In the recognition of the end of all existence as we know it, within the laws and principles of the universe as created, there is no room for permanent and invariable storage of “souls” – neither in a “heaven” nor in a “hell” or any other form of existence.
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But there is the basic principle of theoretical physics of “Conservation of Information”! This would result in the theoretical possibility of time and evolution running backwards. Is there a conflict with the concept of “free will”? Or does conservation of information not apply to the brain processes in connection with will-formation? Or is the conservation of information the only and ultimate form of permanent existence?
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[1] In the human embryo, the early spinal cord develops in a fold of skin. Nerves develop out of the same group of cells in the fetus as the skin.
[2] The consequences for the structure of the human body would have been significant. Smaller dimensions for neurons would have led to smaller heads. This, combined with faster neuron conductivity, would have allowed the placement of the brain securely within the chest.
[3] Could Google be developed into an artificial brain with better selection of foreground associations and , most importantly, by providing it with guided action potential?
[4] This was already recognized by the earliest thinkers and represented in various sagas, for example, the one about Prometheus bringing fire to mankind.
[5] This is possibly given by the Hippocampus nuclei in the brain that provide for short-term (and long-term) memory and may lead, through signal enhancement and by means of cross-connections within the brain (see the white matter under gray cortex or the Claustrum, as suggested by Crick), to temporary signal suppression from other brain areas. See the essays on “mental creativity” on the website www.schwab-writings.com.
[6] Different definitions of “consciousness” or “awareness” or the confusion between these two terms can lead to different conclusions and, sometimes, to great confusion or to rather unique philosophies. See, for example, Julian Jaynes, The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind, ISBN 0-395-32932-9. This confusion also rendered rather ineffective the later work by Francis Crick (co-inventor of the DNA helix, later in La Jolla, California), supported by Christof Koch, Caltech, concentrated on the investigation of “consciousness” (see Koch’s Quest for Consciousness, Roberts & Co., 2004, ISBN 0-9747077-0-8).
[7] The experiments by Benjamin Libet were first published in 1985, more extensively in 1999 in the book, The Volatile Brain, PDC, ISBN 0-907845-11-8, and in 2004 in Mind Time, Harvard Univ. Press, ISBN 0-674-01846-x (presently not yet available). Libet himself does not question “free will”.
[8] On October 19, 2004, the German publication Gehirn und Geist published a “manifest” signed by eleven leading scientists in the field of brain research, including Christof Koch (who had worked with Crick in California), Gerhard Roth, and Wolf Singer. They postulate the anchoring of mind and consciousness in the neural system of the body and their evolution commensurate with it.
[9] Does the observation of the universe allow any conclusions regarding the nature of the Creating Spirit, God? Does the fact that causality is at the root of the functioning of the universe indicate that “time” and order are part of the creating spirit? Does the fact that we sense human love and compassion allow the expectation of love and compassion in the creating spirit – in spite of all the horrible cruelty and senselessness in nature and the history of this world?
[10] Why did the evolution of human thought or culture not move sideways from the Assyrians (and Egyptians) to the Jews or Phoenicians, but jumped over to the Greeks? And later, why did it jump from the Arabs (in southern Spain) to Renaissance Italy and not just sideways to Christian Spain?
[11] As an example of the mechanism of evolution of societies, there is an interesting theory indicating that mountain tribes from the nearby Zagros Mountains had observed and learned to use the benefit of running water, conquered the Mesopotamian plains, and introduced irrigation, laying the foundation for the birth of the Sumerian civilization. There is a similar theory explaining evolution of culture in the origin of the alphabet in the Middle East. An earlier civilization with a language of mono-syllable words, as can be found in the Chinese language, had developed pictorial writing in Sumeria, similar to but preceding the Egyptian hieroglyphs. When another tribe with a language of multi-syllable words, as the Japanese and all Europeans, conquered that area, the conquerors had to compose written words out of several of the available pictograms, each corresponding to the main consonant of a syllable. This became the origin of the first alphabet – with the subsequent enormous influence of reporting, control, literature, philosophy, communication, and the media in societies.
[12] Aristotle already began to collect and compare the descriptions of different constitutions and their evolution in the course of time, mainly of the Greek city-states. He took notes on about 158 in all! Most of these notes are lost by now, with only the very interesting notes on the Athenian constitution and its change through time being preserved.
[13] It is discussed here as a mental phenomenon, not in the sense of the earlier discussed biological or more primitive form of physical dominance as in the overshadowing or toxic repulsion among plants and dominance among animals.
[14] Le Bon, 1841-1931, wrote La Psychologie des Foules (“The Psychology of the Masses”).
[15] This is really not different from the “virtual” value Cowry shells historically had for trade in the South Pacific and beyond.
[16] “Utility” is graphically described as the value of the outcome of a strategy relative to the financially probable outcome. This graph falls off sharply for negative outcomes and reaches a positive plateau at the level of the planning individual’s “planning horizon”, corresponding to the capability to utilize incremental benefit.
[17] The Mongols prevailed by means of their swift horses, far-shooting bows, and advanced siege machinery. In World War I, the tank contributed to the Allied victory. In World War II, Germany desperately attempted to use rocket power and jet engines to recover superiority, while the atomic bomb ended the war in the Pacific. Now, it is the electronic capability in guided missiles and communication that prevails.
[18] The areas conquered by Alexander became heavily influenced by Greek culture. The Diadochian successor states acquired the culture of their lands. The Mongol khans converted to Tibetan Buddhism. The modern African nations still show the influence of their different, former European masters.
[19] The first written record of communal welfare is from Urukagina, King of Lagash, in Mesopotamia, also called Uru’inimgina, approximately 2,380 bc, establishing social order against abuse and corruption by the once powerful priests and presenting himself as the protector of the weak, the widows, and orphans.
[20] The earliest records of the Gilgamesh Epos date from shortly after 2,000 BC and refer to a king or Uruk who lived shortly after 3,000 BC.
[21] See the excellent books by Eric Hoffer, for example, his The True Believer.
[22] Some years ago, there appeared an odd scientific theory implying that nerves are the evolution of earlier flagellate cells that were symbiotically incorporated into organisms as mitochondria cells actually were, but with a merging of DNA, as it actually occasionally occurred between cells very early in evolution. This theory would imply that these flagellates took over total control of the organisms for their own benefit – implying that the body and all its functions became low-level servants of the occupying nerves and the brain, but with the brain, for good reason, taking good care of its bodily servants.
[23] This leads to the somewhat philosophical question whether viruses are “alive” since they need other organisms for some of the above functions.
[24] This was pointed out by Eva Schwab.
[25] Squirrels and similar animals also lived in tropical trees and began to forage on the ground as the need and opportunity occurred, acquiring considerable memory and motor skills – but did not develop bipedalism, language, or higher intelligence – social predators (e.g., wolves, lions) did not develop those either – possibly having been suppressed by the evolving hominids – as mammals had been by the dinosaurs – and as competition is always the fiercest among those occupying the same niches.
[26] See “Rare Earth” by Peter Ward and Donald Brownlee, published by Copernicus Books, 2000 and 2004, ISBN 0-387-95289-6.
[27] The famous “Drake” formula presents the combination of all factors related to the existence of extraterrestrial life capable of communicating with us in our own galaxy in the form of a mathematical formula. Some factors in the formula, like the number of possible suitable planets in the universe, assume very large values. Others, like the probability for intelligent life or the duration of extraterrestrial civilizations before they disappear again may assume very small values (in the minds of various researchers), leaving the result of the formula quite undetermined at this time.
[28] Published by Springer, 2003/4, ISBN 3-540-43988-9.
[29] This was proposed most recently, in 2003/4, by Andrei Linde and Renata Kallosh of Stanford University, predicting such in “crunch” in 10 to 20 billion years.